1. In your own words, describe the four types of inducible repression. Explain how they cause repression (4 pts each). Identify whether they are cis acting or trans acting (1 pt each).

1-Explane these process and the role of bacteria:

- Ammonification

- Nitrification

- Denitrification,

2- Identify three beneficial results of symbiotic nitrogen fixation

3- Outline the sulfur cycle, and explain the roles of microorganisms in this cycle

Antibiotics are used to eliminate which organisms.

Short Discussion – 1 paragraph

What makes DNA and RNA good templates? What makes proteins poor templates?

Microbiology!

1. If allolactose is not present, the lac repressor will stay bound to the operator, and the lac operon will not be transcribed. TRUE OR FALSE

2. The transfer of a plasmid from one cell to another through direct cell-to-cell contact is called _____________.

-Transformation

-Mutation

-Transduction

-Conjugation

3. Bacteria that can naturally take up free DNA and recombine it into their chromosome are called ______________.

- F+ cells

-transformed

-competent

-transduced

a) Explain the difference between "non-native species" and "invasive species".

b) Provide three examples of invasive plants in California, provide a brief explanation for your examples including where they are from originally, how they arrived here and became established, and why they are considered invasive.

1. Describe the various ways extinction rates are measured, in other words how do we estimate the loss of biodiversity on our planet.

2. What are the principal threats to biodiversity? Describe the decline of two species in which multiple threats have contributed to their decline.

Question: The alien species has decided that they want to use a ray gun on you that will duplicate or remove one of the 23 types of chromosomes in all of your body cells. You get to choose which chromosome is affected (choose the the one that would impact your life the least).

If your last name begins with H-Z, choose a chromosome that will be duplicated (only one will be duplicated so you will now have 47 chromosomes).

List 5 types of important genes found on that chromosome and list the source where you got this info.is chromosome( 1,2,3,X,y ) is correct.

1. What are the main differences between the subject areas in human biology, human evolution, and human ecology? What are the Key similarities?

2. From studying nonindustrial societies, what can we learn about enviormental problems like pollution and global warming?

3. What are the main features of a hunter-gatherer lifestyle? What insight does the study of ! Kung hunter-gatherers offer for understanding human biology?

Compare and contrast the processes of mitosis and meiosis. Describe the overall processes (not each detail) and explain why each is important. Be sure to include what type of cell (diploid of haploid) each process starts with, in what location of the body it takes place, and the end result (what is produced)? Please note in a diagram or in words whether or not the beginning cell and the final cells contain sister chromatids and/or homologous chromosomes.

The genetic term “loss of function” is used to describe any mutation in the DNA that leads to a particular protein that cannot function. There are many reasons why a protein may not be functioning any longer…digging into your knowledge on the mechanism of gene expression and gene expression regulation, describe a mutation that could lead to a loss of function mutation. Where is the mutation in the gene? What function of gene expression or gene expression regulation is it affecting? How is it leading to a loss of function for the protein encoded for within that gene?

But I’m going to restrict your answer…describe a mechanism that DOES NOT include a point mutation leading to missense, nonsense, or frameshift – in other words, choose a mutation/mechanism other than a mutation that leads to a change in the protein-coding region of a mature mRNA. I want you to think outside of that particular box.

When a stem cell undergoes asymmetric cell division, what are the two cell types typically formed?

List three ways stem cells protect their genomic DNA.

What are the two main lineages derived from hematopoietic stem cells? List two differentiated cell types derived from each lineage.

Some people believe that cancers form from mutated stem cells. What data from the study of CML supports this theory?

Many DNA polymerases have two catalytic activities. What are they?

What is the phenotype of a mouse in which the proof-reading activity of DNA polymerase has been eliminated through mutation?

When a mistake occurs during DNA replication, it is important for the cell to identify which base is correct and which is incorrect. What clue is used by the repair machinery to determine which base(s) to remove?

What is a microsatellite and how can they lead to random base insertions and deletions in the DNA sequence?

Some (but not all) cancers display microsatellite instability. How does this instability usually arise?

Many bases undergo deamination, but deamination of 5-methylcytosine is very frequent. What base is formed when 5-methylcytosine undergoes deamination?

What products are formed from single electron reduction of O2 to H2O?

Name 3 sources of reactive oxygen species in living tissue.

Would you expect a mouse with a deleted 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine glycosylase to have a higher or lower cancer risk?

Compare how X rays and UV damage DNA.

What are the two major photoproducts formed by UV radiation?

Many environmental agents can alkylate DNA. What is the specialized repair mechanism used by the cell to repair this type of damage?

Many carcinogens enter the body as non-reactive pro-carcinogens. How do they become carcinogens?

Why do cytochrome P450 enzymes attach oxygen molecules to pro-carcinogens?

List three cytochrome P450 substrates that are thought to be human pro-carcinogens and indicate where they come from.

Many dietary pro-carcinogens are absorbed by the small intestine. What is their next destination and where does most of their metabolism usually occur?

What are phase I and phase II enzymes?

What is glutathione and how do glutathione-S-transferases protect cells from carcinogens?

Name a cruciferous vegetable and one of its “active” ingredients with regard to cancer prevention.

How does sulforaphane impact Keap1 and Nrf2 in the cell? What kind of proteins are Keap1 and Nrf2?

Compare base excision DNA repair and nucleotide excision repair. What types of lesions are repaired by BER and which are repaired by NER?

How many XP genes are there? Are XP individuals homozygous or heterozygous at a mutant XP locus?

Most of the XP genes encode proteins involved in: ____________.

Approximately how many base pairs are replaced following NER and BER?

Are BRCA1 and 2 genes best viewed as gatekeeper or caretaker genes?

There are two ways a cell can repair a double strand DNA break. What are they called and which is more error prone?

Which double strand break repair pathway requires a sister chromatid?

What is the difference between chromosomal instability and microsatellite instability? How do these states arise?

In a normal cell, mitosis will not occur until the spindle assembly checkpoint in passed. What event satisfies the spindle activated checkpoint? What happens when this checkpoint in deficient?

What is the role of centromere tension for passing the spindle assembly checkpoint?