Read the following and answer the questions.

INTRODUCTION

Oral cavity is an open growth system with an uninterrupted introduction and removal of microbes and their nutrients. It offers diverse habitats where-in different species of micro-organisms can prosper. The primary requisite for any group of microbes to flourish in a niche is their ability to adhere to the tooth surfaces and multiply in shielded environments like periodontal pockets and tooth crevices. Such an aggregation of microbes on tooth surfaces has been traditionally referred to as ‘plaque’ because of its yellowish color, reminiscent of mucosal plaques caused by syphilis.

Dental plaque has been defined as “a specific but highly variable structural entity consisting of micro-organisms and their products embedded in a highly organized intercellular matrix.” It represents a true biofilm consisting of a variety of micro-organisms involved in a wide range of physical, metabolic and molecular interactions. The cooperative nature of a microbial community provides advantages to the participating organisms such as a broader habitat range for growth, enhanced resistance to antimicrobial agents and host defenses and enhanced pathogenicity.[1]

Biofilms have been implicated as the chief culprit in the etiopathogenesis of dental caries and periodontal disease. Though uncalcified biofilms can be removed by routine oral hygiene aids or professional dental instruments, they have the potential to calcify into dental calculus making their removal difficult. Hence, these biofilms pose a great challenge to the dental clinician in the control and eradication of biofilm-associated diseases.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Biofilms are nothing new. The first description dates back to the 17^thcentury, when Anton Von Leeuwenhoek - the inventor of the Microscope, saw microbial aggregates (now known to be Biofilms) on scrapings of plaque from his teeth.

The term ‘Biofilm’ was coined by Bill Costerton in 1978.

In 2002, Donlan and Costerton offered the most salient description of a biofilm. They stated that biofilm is “a microbially derived sessile community characterized by cells that are irreversibly attached to a substratum or interface or to each other, embedded in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances that they have produced, and exhibit an altered phenotype with respect to growth rate and gene transcription.”[2]

WHAT IS A BIOFILM?

The term Biofilm (Wilderer and Charaklis 1989) describes the relatively indefinable microbial community associated with a tooth surface or any other hard non-shedding material, randomly distributed in a shaped matrix or glycocalyx.[2]

In the lower layers of a biofilm, microbes are bound together in a polysaccharide matrix with other organic and inorganic materials. Above it, is a loose amorphous layer extending into the surrounding medium. The fluid layer bordering the biofilm has stationary and dynamic sub layers.

FORMATION OF A BIOFILM

Formation of a biofilm is a complex process that follows several distinct phases, beginning with adsorption on to the tooth surface of a conditioning film derived from bacterial and host molecules, which forms immediately following tooth eruption or tooth cleaning. This adsorption is followed by passive transport of bacteria mediated by weak long-range forces of attraction. Covalent and hydrogen bonds create strong, short-range forces that result in irreversible attachment.

The primary colonizers form a biofilm by autoaggregation (attraction between same species) and coaggregation (attraction between different species). Coaggregation[4] results in a functional organization of plaque bacteria and formation of different morphologic structures such as Corncobs and Rosettes. The microenvironment now changes from aerobic/capnophilic to facultative anaerobic. The attached bacteria multiply and secrete an extracellular matrix, which results in a mature mixed-population biofilm.

After one day, the term Biofilm is fully deserved because organization takes place within it. Transmission occurs from other sites, leading to incorporation of new members into the biofilm and the formation of a climax community. The thickness of the plaque increases slowly with time, increasing to 20 to 30 μm after three days.

Four stages of dental plaque biofilm growth (as shown in Figure 1)

Stage I - Attachment (lag - not inert, but metabolically reduced)

Stage II - Growth (log - exponential growth)

Stage III - Maturity (stationary)

Stage IV - Dispersal (death)

PROPERTIES OF BIOFILMS

Biofilms are ubiquitous; they form on virtually all surfaces immersed in natural aqueous environments. A biofilm confers certain properties to bacteria that are not seen in the planktonic state, a fact that justifies recognition of dental plaque as a biofilm.

A major advantage is the protection that biofilm provides to the colonizing species from competing micro-organisms, environmental factors such as host defense mechanisms and potentially toxic substances like lethal chemicals or antibiotics. Biofilms also facilitate processing and uptake of nutrients, cross feeding and removal of potentially harmful metabolic products through the voids or water channels between the micro-colonies, acting as a primitive circulatory system.[1] They also create an appropriate physicochemical environment such as a properly reduced oxidation reduction potential.

An important characteristic seen in Biofilm-associated bacteria is Quorum sensing, or cell density mediated gene expression.[5] This involves the regulation of expression of specific genes through the accumulation of signaling compounds that mediate intercellular communication. Quorum sensing may give biofilms their distinct properties. Eg.- Expression of genes for antibiotic resistance at high cell densities may provide protection. It also has the potential to influence community structure by encouraging the growth of species beneficial to the biofilm and discouraging the growth of competitors.

Another important characteristic of biofilm associated bacteria is the gene transfer[6] through which bacteria communicates with each other. In S. mutans, quorum sensing is mediated by competence stimulating peptide, wherein genes are responsible for multiple functions - biofilm formation, competence and acid tolerance.

Biofilm related Regulation of gene expression has been shown in certain bacteria. eg. Exposure of S. gordonii to saliva results in induction of genes that mediate host surface binding and coaggregation with P. gingivalis and Actinomyces. Similarly, genes encoding glucan and fructan synthesis are differentially regulated in Biofilm-associated S. mutans.

MECHANISM OF INCREASED ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN BIOFILMS

Organisms in a Biofilm are 1000-1500 times more resistant to antibiotics than in their planktonic state. The mechanisms[2] of this increased resistance differ from species to species, antibiotic to antibiotic and for biofilms growing in different habitats. This antibiotic resistance in bacteria is thought to be affected by their nutritional status, growth rate, temperature, pH and prior exposure to sub-effective concentrations of antimicrobial agents. Another important mechanism appears to be the slower rate of growth of bacterial species in a biofilm, which makes them less susceptible to bactericidal antibiotics. Biofilm matrix can resist diffusion of antibiotics. Eg. strongly charged or chemically highly reactive agents can fail to reach the deeper zones of the biofilm as it acts as an ion exchanger in removing such molecules from solution.

‘Super-resistant’ bacteria have been identified within a biofilm, which have multidrug-resistance pumps that can extrude antimicrobial agents from the cell. Since these pumps place the antibiotics outside the outer membrane, the process offers protection against antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. Above mentioned observations are critical to the use of antimicrobials in the treatment of Biofilm-associated infections.[7]

BIOFILMS AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Biofilms have been found to be involved in a wide variety of microbial infections (by one estimate 80% of all infections). These include dental caries, periodontal disease, otitis media, musculoskeletal infections, necrotizing fascitis, biliary tract infection, osteomyelitis, bacterial prostatitis, native valve endocarditis, meloidosis, cystic fibrosis pneumonia and peri-implantitis. Salient features of these infections are persistence and chronicity.[2]

What is biofilm and why can it be so dangerous?  

What is quorum sensing?  Discuss quorum sensing in terms of biofilm development?  

Explain the phrase, “dentistry focuses on biofilm.”

Explain digestion from the mouth to the anus. What are the enzymes that carrying it ? What does the ph need to be for them to work ? The acids ?

How a cell can extract 38 molecules of ATP (net) from one molecule of glucose? Explain in detail.

1. Summarize the events in each phase of mitosis.

2. Compare cytokinesis in a plant cell and an animal cell.

1. Define polymer.  Nucleotides are polymerized to form _______ and ________ while amino acids are polymerized to form ________.
2. Metabolic energy is derived from the breakdown of _________ to form _______which can be used to build _______.  Define metabolism and compare and contrast (similarities and differences) catabolism with anabolism.  Lastly, why are viruses not considered to be alive?
3. Draw a graph of a chemical reaction plotting Energy level on the Y axis and the reaction progress on the X access.  Show the energy level in the reactant as the reaction progresses to becoming the product.  Show two lines.  One reaction without an enzyme and one reaction with an enzyme.   

Explain why 1 additional net ATP is produced when the beginning substrate is glycogen compared to glucose. In your answer provide the name of the enzyme responsible for this difference.

explain 8 specific example in which lifestyle and the environment contribute to diseases

All the energy investment reactions involve _______.

A. isomerase

B. kinase

C. dehydrogenase

D. aldolase

For a Western blot method, please explain each step (simple as possible) in the order below

Steps:

- Sample preparation

- Gel Electrophoresis

-Transfer

-Antibody Probing

-Detecting

-Imaging

-Analysis

Draw a quick sketch of mitosis next to meiosis I and meiosis II. You can do it on paper, or on your screen if you have a touchscreen. Compare and contrast them to highlight 3 similarities and 3 differences. Make sure your diagram is CLEARLY labeled

Now draw meiosis with a cell that is diploid and has 3 different sets of chromosomes (that means there is a chromosome 1, 2, and 3, with 2 copies of each). Make sure that chromosomes 1, 2, and 3 are visually distinct

: Draw a sketch of meiosis but add a nondisjunction event to it (you can pick meiosis I or II). For each final daughter cell, CLEARLY identify whether there are any issues with it – does it have the correct set of chromosomes? If it was combined with another gamete to create a zygote, will the resulting zygote have too many or too few chromosomes? Is it missing any chromosomes completely?

How do I do this> what should I model this after?