Provide three examples of the exchange of vital substances in animals.

- For each substance

- List the substance List organs or organ systems involved in the exchange of the substance in humans

- Describe a different strategy for the exchange of the substance in a non-vertebrate animal

Describe the innate immune responses to COVID-19 infection. Be sure to include the IFN response, and the innate immune cells responding to viral infection (and the mechanism how the do it). In addition, include the “cytokine storm” induced by COVID-19; you can find this information in the article “Covid-19 and immune system, 2020”.

True or False

1.  Chromosomecan be thought of as the more highly condensed form of DNAthat is seen in the cell during the mitotic phase portion of the cell cycle.

2. The sporophytecells of a plant are cells that should have the diploidamount of “chromosomes” present and some those cells can perform meiosisto produce spores.

3.  The centromere associated with each monad is a large cluster of numerous proteins, and these proteins are attached to the DNA region of the monad called a kinetochore.

4.__ During the S portion of interphase the DNA making up each monad is duplicated and the two sister chromatids remain together in the region of the dyad called the centromere.

5.__ Cytokinesis is the term used to identify the separation of the cytoplasm of an animal cell into two complete, separate cells through the action of microtubules, intermediate filaments and kinesin motor proteins.

6.__ Cells of both plants and animals have spindle fibers present during cellular division and these fibers are short microfilaments composed of the protein actin with associated myosin motor proteins.

7.__ Cytokinesis in animal cells undergoing mitosis might not occur and this results in the production of a cell with a two nuclei, each with the diploid amount of monads present.

8.__ The process of cytokinesis in plant cells requires the correct function of myosin motor proteins and actin microfilaments.

9.__ Most fungi, animals and protists have a sexual life cycle that involves a clear representation of the alternation of generations.

10.__ Aneuploidies are usually the result of the nondisjunction of homologs during meiosis I or the nondisjunction of monads during meiosis II.

11.__ Most types (kingdoms) of eukaryotic organisms produce gametes as a result of meiosis of diploid mother cells.

12.__ Segregation of gene alleles occurs exclusively during the second meiotic division of plants and exclusively during the first meiotic division in animals.

13.__ When asexual reproduction occurs, the offspring produced have DNA from a single parental source and the offspring have less genetic variability than sexual reproduction.

14.__ The 23rd pair of chromosomes in humans are the sex chromosomes and females are heterogametic (2 types of sex chromosomes) while males are homogametic (1 type of sex chromosomes).

15.__ All members of the Plantae have both a multicellular haploid (gametophyte) and multicellular diploid (sporophyte) component of their sexual life cycle.

16.__The reduction division stage of meiosis is the second meiotic division (meiosis II) and this is when human cells go from a diploid state of 46 dyads to a haploid state of 23 monads.

17.__ A tetrad is composed of a homologous pair of dyad chromosomes that are involved in synapsis and crossing over may occur between homologous chromatids when the dyads are in this state.

18.__ A key function suggested for why organisms perform meiosis is as a mechanism of purifying selection and the removal of deleterious (mutated) genes.

19.__ The key event(s) in the transformation of organisms from the haploid component of their life cycle to the diploid component are the meiotic division of cells and production of gametes..

20.__ In female chickens you would find somatic cells with fully homologous pairs of chromosomes (monads) but in males there would be only mostly fully homologous pairs (monads) and one partially homologous pair the sex chromosomes.

5. You extract chromosomal DNA from 5 cultures of bacteria given to you by another researcher. You are trying to determine if any of the cultures are related to each other, or if they are different. You perform a restriction digest with a restriction enzyme AluI and run the resulting digested DNA out on a 1% agarose gel. The banding patterns in lanes 1 and 5 look the same, but the banding patterns in lanes 2, 3, and 4 look different from the rest. What can you conclude from this information?

6. Suppose you want multiple copies of a gene you have synthesized. How would you obtain the necessary copies by cloning? By PCR?

7. Why did the use of DNA polymerase from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus allow researchers to add the necessary reagents to tubes in a preprogrammed heating block?

8. Explain the difference between antigenic shift and antigenic drift. Using the example of influenza, why is there such concern about the possible emergence of a particularly virulent strain of influenza?

Describe one ion and one other substance that can be asymmetrically distributed within the body of an animal.

- For each substance Describe the asymmetry (which compartments have higher/lower amounts)

- Describe how the asymmetry develops (how amounts in different compartments become different)

- Describe how the asymmetric distribution is important for a specific process in the animal

Probes used in Medical Imaging establishments contain multiple transducers in a fan arrangement. How might more transducers over a range of angles improve the quality of the ultrasound images compared to the scan produced by a single transducer?

Hours before an exam, you eat a chicken sandwich. During an exam, your brain needs energy to remember answers to questions. Explain how this happens. Trace the path of glucose molecule from starch from from the bun of which digest starch, and the pathway through the blood vessels to travel from the small intestine to the brain (3 parts of the pathway)

Calculate the membrane potential of a neuron at standard temperature under each of the following conditions: a. The concentration of sodium, potassium and chloride is the same on both the inside and the outside of the membrane. b. The concentration of ions inside and outside the cell are as given below, but the relative permeability is the same for the three ions. c. The concentration of ions inside and outside the cell are as given below, but the relative permeability of K+ is 100 times greater than that of Na+ and Cl-.

(12 Points)

[??+]?=150??; [??+]?=15??; [?+]?=5??; [?+]?=100??; [??−]?=150??; [??−]?=13??;[Na+]o=150mM; [Na+]i=15mM; [K+]o=5mM; [K+]i=100mM; [Cl−]o=150mM; [Cl−]i=13mM;

Explain where proteins are synthesized and then trace different routes taken by various types of proteins from the site of initial manufacture to the ultimate destination in the cell.

Explain how a single point mutation in the DNA sequence can have a damaging effect on the final protein. Provide a detailed explanation and include reasoning in regard to the transcription and translation processes.

describe the process of protein synthesis. include the sequences involved, molecules participating and why is this process important. draw structures or molecules involved

Describe one of the following theories and discuss why you agree or disagree with this theory. You can use one of the other theories to support your position.
a. Theory of moral development (Kolhberg)
b. cognitive theory of development (Piaget)
c. Psychosocial stages of development (Erikson)

Please use nonplagarized material, have a reference list and in text citations (APA format)

What is the numbering scheme for naming fatty acids.