Explain in depth the countercurrent multiplication and countercurrent exchange mechanisms. Describe fully their roles in urine production. Please make reference to osmolality changes that occur throughout the nephron and also make note of the loop of Henle.

A 66-year-old man went to his doctor for evaluation of ongoing episodes of chest pain, being lightheaded and shortness of breath with exertion, 2 weeks ago he fainted while going up the stairs. His chart showed a heavy calcified aortic valve and his valve area is 40% of its normal size.

What is the most likely diagnosis for this patient's condition?

if the patient is not treated in time what will happen, to his stroke volume?

what are the treatment options?

2. Hyponatremia is usually corrected by a decrease in antidiuretic hormone.
True
False

3. Which of the following statements is NOT true regarding lipid metabolism?
       It occurs if the body cannot make enough energy from glucose.
       It produces ketone by products.
       It can lead to a fruity smell to the urine and breath.
       It will occur after carbohydrate and protein metabolism efforts have been exhausted

7. What is secreted by the alveoli cells that prevent the lungs from collapsing between each breath by reducing surface tension?
       Surfactant
       Mucous
       Pulmonary fluid
       Water

13. Which is true regarding the small and large intestine?
       The large intestine will absorb water from the remaining indigestible food.
       The small intestine finishes the mechanical digestion process.
       The duodenum is the portion of the small intestine connected to the large intestine.
       The small intestine uses only segmentation motility.

19. Which of the following is a benefit to the inflammatory process?
       It helps spread of pathogens throughout the body.
       It stops the repair process.
       It acts as an alarm for the adaptive immune system.
       It initiates the production of antibodies.

23.

1. The extracellular fluid is about 1/3 of the overall body water content.

   True

   False

What are the five (5) functions of the respiratory system and each of their description?

What's the structure and function of the respiratory membrane and its explanation?

What are the three ways that carbon dioxide is transported in the blood?

True or false

1.In the primary immune response, there is no antibody production in the the lag phase, only B cell proliferate and differentiate.

2. The hydrostatic pressure gradient drives water_________capillaries, and the colloid osmotic pressure drives water_______capillaries.

out of; out of out of; into into; out of into; into

3. When B cells are activated, they differentiate into:

Plasma cells

Memory cells

more than one answers are correct

none of the answers are correct

4.HIV specifically infects the cytotoxic T-cells necessary to activate both B-cell and T helper cell immune response.

5.Arteries always carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and veins always carry deoxygenated blood toward the heart.

6. Your friend tests her snake-wrangling skills on an eastern diamondback rattlesnakes and is bitten injected with the snake’s venom. In the ER, doctors administer the antivenin CroFab, which contains antibodies to the toxins in snake venom. This is an example of artificially acquired ____?__immunity and will not confer any lasting protection to your friend.

7.Lymph from the lower limbs drains into the right lymphatic duct.

In detail describe the correct treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis and explain why:

In detail describe the correct treatment for Hepatitis and peptic ulcers and explain why:

The depolarization of an axon is the result of the __________ of __________ ions.

outflux/Na+

outflux/K+

influx/K+

influx/Na+

uptake/neurotransmitters

Which type of receptor cell is responsible for transducing pain stimuli?

nociceptor

mechanoreceptor

photoreceptor

thermoreceptor

Glucagon is secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas and causes an increase in blood glucose.

True

False

The effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers are cooperative in the…

reproductive system

cardio-vascular system

eyes

heart

The dark current of the retina refers to…

inhibition of inhibitory NTs

inhibition of excitatory NTs

Of the following neurotransmitters, which are not stored in vesicles before release by the presynaptic axon?

Amino Acids

Monoamines

Endocannabinoids

Acetylcholine

Polypeptides

excitation of inhibitory NTs

excitation of excitatory NTs

Pick your favorite sport and describe what major muscles are being utilized in your given sport. You must list at least five major muscles. In addition you will describe specific exercises that can be used to strengthen those muscles.

-Which organs produce digestive enzymes? Where does digestion occur? Where does digestion start? Where does most nutrient absorption occur? Where does most water reabsorption occur? How are fats absorbed into the body? What is the role of cholecystokinin?

-Thinking back to earlier in the class: Be able to determine how pH and oxygen impact solute transport across the intestinal epithelium. How is transport of a solute impacted by concentration gradient? How could you determine if transport is dependent on sodium, pH, oxygen, transport proteins? How do these factors impact transport rate?

select all that are more likely to be found in an aging skeleton as compared to a young one.

Check All That Apply

• 1- Cranial bones are fused.

• 2- Articulating surfaces are smooth.

• 3- Bones are porous and brittle.

• 4- Bone spurs are found on articular surfaces.

Name four effector organs that are dually innervated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. How does each system effect the effector organs listed?

A child fell in the playground and cut her hand on a piece of glass. The cut extended across her wrist from the lateral border to the midline, just distal to the trapezium bone. The cut was deep and the physicians in emergency were concerned about a possible peripheral nerve lesion. Which nerve were they probably most concerned about and what motor and sensory tests would they do to check if this nerve had been damaged?.The child’s mother had been diagnosed with carpal tunnel syndrome. How would the pattern of injury in the mother’s hand differ from that of the child? Position your hand in the way you think the hand would appear with each of the two lesions described.