Original Source Material

Student Version

Many students graduate from college not knowing what they want to do with their lives. We propose that students should be encouraged to think about life goals (not just career goals) from an early age and be encouraged to be constantly on the lookout for better goals.

References:
Reigeluth, C. M., Watson, W. R., Watson, S. L., Dutta, P., Chen, Z. C., & Powell, N. D. P. (2008). Roles for technology in the information-age paradigm of education: Learning management systems. Educational Technology, 48(6), 32-39.

Unfortunately, I was not encouraged to think about life goals (not just career goals) from an early age or encouraged to be on the lookout for better goals (Reigeluth et al., 2008, p.34). Instead, my parents and teachers seemed to care more about trivial details like showing up to class on time.

References:
Reigeluth, C. M., Watson, W. R., Watson, S. L., Dutta, P., Chen, Z. C., & Powell, N. D. P. (2008). Roles for technology in the information-age paradigm of education: Learning management systems. Educational Technology, 48(6), 32-39.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Obviously, it is vitally important in the war of attrition that individuals should give no inkling of when they are going to give up. Anybody who betrayed, by the merest flicker of a whisker, that he was beginning to think of throwing in the sponge, would be at an instant disadvantage.

References:
Dawkins, R. (1989). The selfish gene (3rd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

In the game of survival between individuals in nature, indicating in any way that tossing in the towel is being seriously considered can be exploited by an adversary (Dawkins, 1989).

Original Source Material

Student Version

We shall take the simpleminded view that a theory is just a model of the universe, or a restricted part of it, and a set of rules that relate quantities in the model to observations that we make. It exists only in our minds and does not have any other reality (whatever that might mean). A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements. It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements, and it must make definite predictions about the results of future observations.

References:
Hawking, S., & Mlodinow, L. (2008). A briefer history of time (Reprint.). New York, NY: Bantam.

A theory can be thought to exist only in our brains and lack any other form of tangible reality. This does not mean that theories are just fleeting thoughts, since they are comprised of a specific model of how things work and rules that associate model attributes to what we observe in the universe.

Original Source Material

Student Version

There is a desperate need for theorists and researchers to generate and refine a new breed of learning-focused instructional design theories that help educators and trainers to meet those needs, (i.e., that focus on learning and that foster development of initiative, teamwork, thinking skills, and diversity). The health of instructional-design theory also depends on its ability to involve stakeholders in the design process.

Reference 1:
Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). What is instructional-design theory and how is it changing? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. II, pp. 5-29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Original Source Material 2
By instruction I mean any deliberate arrangement of events to facilitate a learner's acquisition of some goal. The goal can range from knowledge to skills to strategies to attitudes, and so on.

Reference 2
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Driscoll (2000) defines instruction broadly as "any deliberate arrangement of events to facilitate a learner's acquisition of some goal" (p. 25). In order to increase the effectiveness of instruction, there is a critical need for the creation and refinement of instructional design theories to aid those who seek to promote learning. According to Reigeluth (1999), "The health of instructional-design theory also depends on its ability to involve stakeholders in the design process" (p. 27).

References:
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). What is instructional-design theory and how is it changing? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory(Vol. II, pp. 5-29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Original Source Material

Student Version

The philosophical position known as constructivism views knowledge as a human construction. The various perspectives within constructivism are based on the premise that knowledge is not part of an objective, external reality that is separate from the individual. Instead, human knowledge, whether the bodies of content in public disciplines (such as mathematics or sociology) or knowledge of the individual learner, is a human construction.

References:
Gredler, M. E. (2001). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Does knowledge exist outside of, or separate from, the individual who knows? Constructivists hold that human knowledge, whether the bodies of content in public disciplines (such as mathematics or sociology) or knowledge of the individual learner, is a human construction (Gredler, 2001).

References:
Gredler, M. E. (2001). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Pei is popularly known for the controversy surrounding his Grand Louvre Pyramid (1988), constructed in the courtyard of the Louvre (fig. 25.21). The Pyramid deliberately turns the tradition and concept of pyramid inside out. A pyramid is supposed to be solid, dark, and solitary--a mesmerizing symbol of the exotic world beyond the streets and cultures of Europe.

References:
Arnason, H. H. (2003). History of modern art: painting, sculpture, architecture, photography (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

We saw one of the highlights of the architectural tour of Paris as we approached the Louvre. The guide told us that Pei's Grand Louvre Pyramid deliberately turns the tradition and concept of pyramid inside out. When we got off the bus we were able to get a closer look at the glass pyramid and what was below it.

Original Source Material

Student Version

As a further example, APT queries and their results may be used to form rules for expert systems that become part of an intelligent computer-based instructional system. Such a system theoretically can optimize student learning by recommending instructional sequences (i.e., temporal patterns) that have high probabilities of resulting in student mastery. In other words, APT-based decision making by a computer program can provide an empirical foundation for artificial intelligence.

References:
Frick, T. W. (1990). Analysis of patterns in time: A method of recording and quantifying temporal relations in education. American Educational Research Journal, 27(1), 180-204.

One way that learning can be personalized is through the use of computers to aid in "recommending instructional sequences (i.e., temporal patterns) that have high probabilities of resulting in student mastery" (Frick, 1990, p. 202). However, the ability for computers to make appropriate decisions about instructional strategies is limited, in part, by the quality of information they have access to.

References:
Frick, T. W. (1990). Analysis of patterns in time: A method of recording and quantifying temporal relations in education. American Educational Research Journal, 27(1), 180-204.

Original Source Material

Student Version

But what are reasonable outcomes of the influence of global processes on education? While the question of how global processes influence all aspects of education (and who controls these forces) is multidimensional and not completely testable, there appear to be some theories of globalization as it relates to education that can be empirically examined.

References:
Rutkowski, L., & Rutkowski, D. (2009). Trends in TIMSS responses over time: Evidence of global forces in education? Educational Research and Evaluation, 15(2), 137-152.

The authors are not alone in asking “what are reasonable outcomes of the influence of global processes on education” (p.138). In fact, this same question provides the basis for the discussion that follows.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Suppose you study a group of successful companies and you find that they emphasize customer focus, or quality improvement, or empowerment; how do you know that you haven't merely discovered the management practice equivalent of having buildings? How do you know that you've discovered something that distinguishes the successful companies from other companies? You don't know. You can't know--not unless you have a control set, a comparison group.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Attributes of rigorous research can be shared across subjects of study. For example, Collins and Porras (2002) highlight the importance of having a control group when comparing companies in any effort to identify what specific company characteristics are able to distinguish the successful from the ordinary.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Merck, in fact, epitomizes the ideological nature--the pragmatic idealism--of highly visionary companies. Our research showed that a fundamental element in the "ticking clock" of a visionary company is a core ideology--core values and a sense of purpose beyond just making money--that guides and inspires people throughout the organization and remains relatively fixed for long periods of time.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Several factors can contribute to long-term organizational success. One is the establishment of a core ideology that Collins and Porras (2002) describe as "core values and sense of purpose beyond just making money" (p. 48). Also, the importance of a visionary leader that guides and inspires people throughout the organization and remains relatively fixed for long periods of time is hard to over emphasize.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.