Draw, at high power, a section of loose (areolar) connective tissue,adipose tissue and hyaline cartilage. For areolar CT, label the extracellular fibers (collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers), and some living cells (you will most likely see fibroblasts and possibly adipocytes). For adipose tissue, label the cytoplasm with nucleus and the fat-storage area. For hyaline cartilage, be able to label the chondrocytes and matrix.

Explain the challenges the vertebrates faced in moving from water onto land and give a ‘solution’ or response to each challenge that can be seen in modern reptiles.

Name any two phases of mitosis and describe the cellular activities that occur during that phase.

The surgical ward at a public hospital was having an outbreak of diarrheal illness. The patients with the illness had all had surgery and were taking antibiotics as preventative measure to prevent infection. Symptoms of the disease cramping, numerous bloody stools and inflammation of the colon. A Gram positive, endospore forming bacillus was isolated from 25 patients. Three of these patients died.

a. What was the probable “etiological” agent (pathogen)?

b. What is the most likely source of his infection, and how would you verify this?

c. Determine if the illness was due to an intoxication or an infection and give the information you based your answer on.

d. What was the probable treatment protocol for this illness? (how were they treated

e. Explain how this outbreak could have been prevented.

When ovulation occurs, what is released from the follicle? Choose all the correct options.

a. Ovum

b. Cumulus oophorus

c. Fluid from the antrum of the follicle

d. Zona pellucida around the ovum

During dental procedures, dentists inject local anesthetics in the nerve pathway supporting the region they are working on. These local anesthetics block Na+ (sodium) channels. Explain in detail the process of a typical action potential, and how local anesthetics prevent the transmission of pain impulses to the brain.

Topic 2: Resting membrane potential

Describe how a resting membrane potential is established in the wrong. and your answer be sure to include

• A definition of membrane potential

• The resting membrane potential of neurons

• What does this value mean

• What ions are involved in establishing the resting membrane potential? What are the General concentration effects on resting membrane potential? why? The answer should include descriptions of relevant permeabilities, equilibrium potential, and concentration gradients.

• What is the role of the sodium-potassium pump in the resting membrane potential?

Topic 1: Feedback loops.

Define & give real-life physiological examples of a negative and positive feedback loop, in your answer include.

• Definitions for the negative and positive feedback loop

• Physiological examples of each

• A general description of the four major components of the feedback loop and what those components are in each of your examples

• A drawing of the feedback loop including where the negative and positive feedback occurs.

Topic 4: Central nervous system.

For the brain structure/ areas below, provide the following information

1. Location

2. General function

3. Example of when the structure/ area would be active

4. A disease/ disorder that affects the structure/ area, and why physiology dysfunction this would result in

structures/ areas (mus complete all )

• Broca area

• Primary motor cortex

• Primary somatosensory cortex

• Primary visual cortex

• Auditory association area

• Prefrontal association area

• Basal ganglia

• Pineal gland

• Medulla oblongata

Topic 5: Endocrine case study

Following routine blood work, your doctor informs you that you have Primary hyperthyroidism. based on this diagnosis answer the following question

• What is the difference between primary and secondary hyperthyroidism

• What do you expect the blood work to show elevated or decreased levels of thyroid hormones( thyroxine T3/T4) and thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH? Why?

• if left untreated what do you expect a goiter to develop? why?

Topic 6: Skeletal muscle contraction

Describe in detail the entire process of excitation coupling in skeletal muscle, begin with an action potential reaching the synaptic knob of a motor neuron through completion of a cross Bridge cycle. after detailing those events to include the following information

• Define a motor unit describe motor unit recruitment and Explain how these terms relate to excitation-contraction coupling.

• Define and describe muscle twitch and summation and explain how these terms relate to motor unit/motor unit Recruitment and excitation-contraction coupling.

Topic 7: Cardiac action potential.

Define and describe the differences in the location and function of cardiac autorhythmic and contractile cells. in detail draw and describe the action potential of these two cell types of making sure to include

• Voltages At which important events occur

  • Resting membrane potential

  • Threshold potential

  • Peak of the action potential

  • Repolarization and hyperpolarization phase

• types of different ion channels and their state throughout

  • When do they open and close?

• What ions are moving where and when

• any other relevant information