1. Describe the following relationships:
   1. Nucleotides and DNA
   2. Genes, intergenic regions and DNA
   3. DNA, histones, and nucleosomes
   4. Nucleosomes and chromatin
   5. Chromatin and chromosome
   6. DNA, nucleus, mitochondria and genome

While chatting about neural oscillations at a party, someone tells you that they believe that neural oscillations are exhaust fumes of the brain. Write your response to them below, and provide an example from at least two published, peer-reviewed experiments to support why you agree or disagree with their statement

1. State what the function(s) of the following nuclear components and why each is important to the cell. (Provide details, don’t just say “ribosomes are the location of translation.” What is translation) nuclear envelope, lamins and nuclear lamina, ER, ribosomes, nuclear pore, and nucleolus. Remember, this is a study tool, the more detailed you are here, the better understanding you have of the info.

Explain when plants and animals first showed up on earth. Include geologic time frame.

1. Address the following regarding Oxidative Phosphorylation?
   1. Why are the processes of the ETC and ATP Synthase always coupled? What is the “oxidative” part refer to? What is the “phosphorylation” refer to?
   2. What type of transport is the ETC an example of? Explain why.
   3. Discuss how Ox-Phos is similar to the active transport of glucose.
   4. Define/Discuss the relationship between proton motive force, electrochemical gradient before/after ETC, ATP synthase and chemiosmosis (via ATP synthase).

Outline the functions of the following hormones in relation to digestion and/or the maintenance of metabolic balance: gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), insulin, glucagon and leptin.

What are the sources of nitrogenous wastes in animals, and how are these converted and eliminated in the osmoregulatory systems of invertebrates, insects, bony fish, mammals and birds?   

1. You are interested in cloning a gene from the B. sanfranciscus genome, so you design PCR primers that should amplify a 1 kilobase pair (kbp) PCR product that contains the gene of interest.  After amplification, you will see if the PCR  was successful by loading the entire reaction onto an agarose gel and performing electrophoresis to see if a product of the expected size was generated.  To visualize the DNA, you will stain the gel with a fluorescent dye called ethidium bromide, which fluoresces when it binds to DNA. The sensitivity of ethidium-bromide-stained DNA is 10 nanograms (i.e. – there must be at least 10 ng of DNA in the band in the gel to emit a detectable amount of light).

If your PCR reaction initially contained 30 B. sanfranciscus genomes, how many cycles of PCR will required before there is a detectable amount of amplified product?  You can assume:  a) there is 1 copy of the gene per genome, b) the PCR occurs with perfect efficiency and therefore the amount of product doubles after each cycle, and, c) that the molecular weight of a 1 kbp molecule of DNA is 6.5 x 10⁵Daltons. Express your answer in the number of complete (not fractional) cycles and show your work.

Discuss the prevention for meningitis. Please be VERY detailed.

How COL1A1 gene is related to collagen? How is this gene regulated? How is the collagen protein that is formed? What is specific structure, what is function of this protein? How is this protein regulated post-translationally?

What is protein that is related to p53 gene? How is this gene regulated? What is the protein that is formed? What is specific structure, what is function of this protein? How is this protein regulated post-translationally?

for the uracil:
1. Describe chemical characteristics, classification and biological molecule in which it is found
2. Identify each of the parts that make it up and graph nitrogenous base, nucleoside and nucleotide.

McArdle Disease (glycogen storage disease 5) is caused by mutations in the phosphorylase enzyme in muscle. The symptoms are muscle cramps, pain, and fatigue during strenuous exercise. A patient is undergoing an ischemic exercise test and is fed 13C glucose prior to the test and then blood is drawn after the test. Explain how the following substrates would be labeled 1) alpha-ketoglutarate, 2) glucose 3) ribose, and 4) alanine.

McArdle Disease (glycogen storage disease 5) is caused by mutations in the phosphorylase enzyme in muscle. The symptoms are muscle cramps, pain, and fatigue during strenuous exercise. An ischemic exercise test is often used as part of the diagnostic process. This test measures lactate in the blood but is not always specific for McArdle. Explain why lactate might be a good diagnostic measurement for this disease and how its production is regulated in muscle in a normal person versus a McArdle patient

Please Describe AND diagram when and how six carbons in glucose are all transferred and released, and in what form (molecule), from glycolysis through the Krebs (TCA) cycle. What else happens each time carbons are released?