Outline the functions of the following hormones in relation to digestion and/or the maintenance of metabolic balance: gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), insulin, glucagon and leptin.

What are the sources of nitrogenous wastes in animals, and how are these converted and eliminated in the osmoregulatory systems of invertebrates, insects, bony fish, mammals and birds?   

1. You are interested in cloning a gene from the B. sanfranciscus genome, so you design PCR primers that should amplify a 1 kilobase pair (kbp) PCR product that contains the gene of interest.  After amplification, you will see if the PCR  was successful by loading the entire reaction onto an agarose gel and performing electrophoresis to see if a product of the expected size was generated.  To visualize the DNA, you will stain the gel with a fluorescent dye called ethidium bromide, which fluoresces when it binds to DNA. The sensitivity of ethidium-bromide-stained DNA is 10 nanograms (i.e. – there must be at least 10 ng of DNA in the band in the gel to emit a detectable amount of light).

If your PCR reaction initially contained 30 B. sanfranciscus genomes, how many cycles of PCR will required before there is a detectable amount of amplified product?  You can assume:  a) there is 1 copy of the gene per genome, b) the PCR occurs with perfect efficiency and therefore the amount of product doubles after each cycle, and, c) that the molecular weight of a 1 kbp molecule of DNA is 6.5 x 10⁵Daltons. Express your answer in the number of complete (not fractional) cycles and show your work.

Discuss the prevention for meningitis. Please be VERY detailed.

How COL1A1 gene is related to collagen? How is this gene regulated? How is the collagen protein that is formed? What is specific structure, what is function of this protein? How is this protein regulated post-translationally?

What is protein that is related to p53 gene? How is this gene regulated? What is the protein that is formed? What is specific structure, what is function of this protein? How is this protein regulated post-translationally?

for the uracil:
1. Describe chemical characteristics, classification and biological molecule in which it is found
2. Identify each of the parts that make it up and graph nitrogenous base, nucleoside and nucleotide.

McArdle Disease (glycogen storage disease 5) is caused by mutations in the phosphorylase enzyme in muscle. The symptoms are muscle cramps, pain, and fatigue during strenuous exercise. A patient is undergoing an ischemic exercise test and is fed 13C glucose prior to the test and then blood is drawn after the test. Explain how the following substrates would be labeled 1) alpha-ketoglutarate, 2) glucose 3) ribose, and 4) alanine.

McArdle Disease (glycogen storage disease 5) is caused by mutations in the phosphorylase enzyme in muscle. The symptoms are muscle cramps, pain, and fatigue during strenuous exercise. An ischemic exercise test is often used as part of the diagnostic process. This test measures lactate in the blood but is not always specific for McArdle. Explain why lactate might be a good diagnostic measurement for this disease and how its production is regulated in muscle in a normal person versus a McArdle patient

Please Describe AND diagram when and how six carbons in glucose are all transferred and released, and in what form (molecule), from glycolysis through the Krebs (TCA) cycle. What else happens each time carbons are released?

discussed that all living organisms have seven properties in common: (1) they grow and develop, (2) interact/respond to the environment, (3) reproduce, (4) process energy, (5) self-regulate, (6) are ordered/organized, and (7) evolve/adapt. Viruses, however, represent a challenge to this because they do not self regulate or process energy, which has led to many scientists not classifying viruses as living and say they are simply particles. Based on what you know from, should viruses be considered living? There is no right answer to this, just support your position.

McArdle Disease (glycogen storage disease 5) is caused by mutations in the phosphorylase enzyme in muscle. The symptoms are muscle cramps, pain, and fatigue during strenuous exercise. A) An ischemic exercise test is often used as part of the diagnostic process. This test measures lactate in the blood but is not always specific for McArdle. Explain why lactate might be a good diagnostic measurement for this disease and how its production is regulated in muscle in a normal person versus a McArdle patient. B) A patient is undergoing an ischemic exercise test and is fed 13C glucose prior to the test and then blood is drawn after the test. Explain how the following substrates would be labeled 1) alpha-ketoglutarate, 2) glucose 3) ribose, and 4) alanine. C) in patients with McArdle would you expect electron chain activity to increase, decrease, or remain the same in the muscle cell if the person is at rest? exercising?

1. The regulation of aspartate derived amino acids in Arabidopsis thaliana is depicted as an integrated network involving pathway end products that act as allosteric effectors on enzymes in intermediate steps.

   1. Explain the downstream consequence of a reduction in the amount of S-Adenosyl methionine (SAM) on the overall flux of carbon through the various branches of this metabolic pathway.

   2. The first step in converting aspartate into other amino acids is the phosphorylation of aspartate. In A. thaliana, there are five distinct aspartate kinase enzymes, two of which (AK I and AK II) are bi-functional enzymes that also possess homoserine dehydrogenase activity (HSDH I and
      HSDH II, respectively). What is the net effect of combining AK and HSDH activities into one enzyme? How does regulation of AK I/HSDH I and AK II/HSDH II impact the flow of carbon skeletons toward the possible end products in this pathway?