Examples of endergonic reactions/processes are:

a. chemotaxis

b. transcription

c. H+ gradient generation

d. Calvin-Benson Cycle

e. all are endergonic

Respond to the following in a minimum of 175 words: As you have learned this week, bacterial cells have the ability acquire genetic traits by swapping genes with other bacterial cells. If you were a bacterium, what genetic traits would you find most helpful to acquire?

4. Define uncoupling proteins (UCPs) and describe what is their effect in the mitochondrial electrochemical gradient.

6) CRISPR-Cas9 and genome editing:

1. Briefly explain the prevailing hypothesis for the bacterial origins and function of CRISPR-Cas9 (prior to its use in genome engineering).
2. Identify and briefly explain 3 important technical issues that have been identified as major hurdles to conducting CRISPR on germline cells in humans (e.g., technical things we need to solve before it would ever be reasonable to make CRISPR babies, for example). For this question, we can ignore the  large number of ethical issues, and just focus on the technical ones.

Main functions of the nervous system. Some axons and dendrites are coated with a sheath made of Schwann cells. What is the functions of this covering.

What structure was present on the polychaetes that is missing from the earthworm and leech?

• Know-how p53 is activated during the cell cycle and what two outcomes are possible – know the signaling pathways (you do not have to know how PUMA induces apoptosis, just that it does)

• Know the types of chemical modulators of receptors – agonist/antagonist

• Know the G-protein-linked signaling pathway – how it is activated and what happens downstream – be able to describe the signaling pathways that lead to PKA and PKC activation

• Know the tyrosine-kinase signaling pathway – how it is activated and what happens downstream

• Be able to explain a dominant-negative mutant and constitutive mutant receptor in signaling

• Know the types of cell junctions

• Difference between a benign and malignant tumor

• “Seed & soil” hypothesis of cancer metastasis

• Know & describe the 10 hallmarks of cancer

• Know the four most common causes of cancer

• Know the difference between an oncogene and a tumor suppressor

• Understand the immune surveillance theory

• Know the phases of the cell cycle and what occurs at each stage

• Know where the checkpoints (restriction points) occur in the cell cycle and what influences each checkpoint

• Understand the role of cyclins and CDKs – which one is regulatory and which one has the enzyme activity

The Tasmanian native hen (Gallinula mortierii) is a flightless bird in which males often outnumber females. In this system, either a pair (male and female) raises offspring, or a trio (a pair helped by a subordinate male) raises offspring. The subordinate male in a trio is usually the brother of the male of the pair. Given the following data: a. First year breeding pairs with no helpers average 1.1 offspring produced during that year. b. First year breeding trios (Male and Female + subordinate male) produce 4.1 offspring on average. c. Experienced pairs produce about 5.5 offspring per year without helpers d. Experienced pairs with helpers (i.e. a trio) produce about 6.5 offspring per year. If a first year male is faced with three choices -- breed on its own, help a brother in his first year, or help an older, experienced brother -- which should it choose and why? Show your work and calculations, and state which of the three options is best, second best, and worst. (Remember, helpers are helping raise nephews/nieces, not siblings).

You hypothesize that antlers of male deer are costly signals of fighting ability that are directed toward other males. Give three testable predictions that stem from this hypothesis. How would you test each? (3 ways)

4) Describe the four evolutionary mechanisms that alter the frequencies of existing genetic variation in natural populations. You need to define each mechanism and describe at least one example of its action in natural populations (e.g., genetic drift in overhunted populations resulting in less genetic diversity).

6) What is climate change and what we should do about it? You need to describe how humans have been impacting on the atmosphere, greenhouses effect, carbon footprint, and climate change impact on biodiversity.

2) The origin of life on our planet can be traced back to an early primordial soup and to the origin of RNA. What is the RNA world? Name of the characteristics of RNA as one of the most flexible molecules that kick-stared complex life.

Microbiology:

How many types of B cells are produced in the process of clonal expansion? Summarize why each is needed for a thorough and long-lasting humoral immune response to an antigen.