1. (i) Explain why it is important to assign individuals to species. (ii) What is a species concept? (iii) Name and formally define one species concept. (iv) Explain ONE of the weaknesses associated with the concept named in (iii). Critically discuss the question of what is a species. please explain in details and clear

2. (i) What is sudden speciation? Describe, using a specific example, the process of sudden speciation. (ii) What is ecological speciation? Describe, using a specific example, the process of ecological speciation. please explain in details and clear

3. The marine fauna on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of the Isthmus of Panama includes a broad range and large number of closely related species pairs. Name the model of speciation responsible for this pattern and explain its main features and how it differs from allopatric speciation by peripheral isolation. please explain in deep details and clear

In humans, the huntingtin gene is essential for nerve cells to function effectively. People with Huntington’s disease have 2 different copies of the huntingtin gene – one normal and one mutated. The mutated huntingtin gene (HD) is caused by an excess of codons (CAG) that code for the amino acid glutamine. The HD gene is responsible for deterioration of the nerve cells, which leads to loss of one’s ability to move, feel and think.

Can you design an RNAi drug that targets only the HD gene and not the normal huntingtin gene?

Compare and contrast cocaine with amphetamine in terms of how it’s consumed, its different uses, the effects it has on the user, and how it manipulates monoamine activity (is the manipulation agonistic or antagonistic?). What kind of long-term effects do stimulants have on the health of habitual users

ELISA Data Sheet

1) Please record the sample ID and the color present in each of the wells of your test strip (either blue or clear).

2) Which students are positive for the disease antigen?

3) Which classmate(s) appear to be the original source(s) of the disease (see the ELISA Tracking list)? Note that you should be able to narrow it down to two people.

4) If a sample showed a negative result, does this mean that the person does not have the disease? Why might someone have gotten a negative result when they really do have the disease?

5) If a sample showed a positive result, was the person in "direct" contact with one of the originally infected students (answer from question #3)? If they were not, what does this tell you about disease transmission in a population?

6) Why were the tests run in triplicate?

Compare and contrast physical dependence theories of addiction and positive incentive theories of addiction. Which one explain addiction better and why?

For questions 5 through 9: You have isolated an epithelial cell line which is unresponsive to EGF (normal epithelial derived cell lines require EGF in the culture media for growth). You suspect that EGF receptor signaling in this cell line is impaired, and you designate this a mutant cell line. As an assay for EGFR signaling, you have stably transfected this mutant cell line and a normal cell line with a luciferase-based reporter construct that is responsive to the transcription factor Elk-1. You want to determine what component of the signaling pathway is impaired. 5. (5 pts) Briefly describe a method you could use to transfect the luciferasebased reporter construct DNA into a cell, and then describe how you could establish (or select for) a stable cell line expressing this reporter construct.

Research in cell biology and metabolism has progressed due to the discovery of molecules that artificially stimulate or inhibit glucagon/epinephrine and insulin signaling pathways. Let’s say you are working in a lab cataloging the effects of a library of small molecules on these pathways and have a “hit” on molecule 1stAVNGR. Preliminary data on molecule 1stAVNGRindicates that the cardiac isoform of PFK2/FBPase2 is doubly phosphorylated when this molecule is present at micromolar concentrations in cell cultures.

A. In consideration of the data presented in this problem what would be the expected effect of molecule 1stAVNGRon glycolytic flux in a culture of cardiac myocytes? Explain your reasoning?

B.Finally, if molecule 1stAVNGRwere infused into a culture of hepatocytes what would be the expected effect on glycolytic flux in these cells? Explain your reasoning.

Pick an animal species that reproduces sexually and write a few robust paragraphs about how sexual reproduction is beneficial to the species. Include facts about the species life cycle to support your ideas like habitat, environmental factors, growth and development, etc.

Pick an animal species that reproduces asexually and write a few robust paragraphs about how asexual reproduction is beneficial to the species. Include facts about the species life cycle to support your ideas like habitat, environmental factors, growth and development, etc.

How pigment separation using paper chromatography works?

The development of neoplasia involves a complex pathogenesis with mutations in a number of genes contributing.

1 Compare and contrast the two major categories of genes involved in the development of neoplasia.

2. Name 3 examples from each of the two major categories of genes you discussed above (6 examples total). Describe the normal function of these genes and how dysregulation of each of these genes contributes to the development of neoplasia.

1- If ‘the dose makes the poison’ –are all people affected equally? Why or why not?

2. How arenecrosis and apoptosis similar? How are they different?

.

During a wildlife survey of wintering locations for migratory birds, a large number of waterfowl have been found to have died due to a large dose of a toxic substance. During follow-up research of the birds’summering locations and migratory path, no sources of the toxic substance were found with concentrations sufficient to explain the body-burden measured in the dead birds.In fact, no sources were found that would have led to a fatal exposure at all (even for young birds) Describe what you consider to be the most-likely cause for the observations above.

1) If you suspect your culture of bacteria has 125 x 106 cells per mL, what would you want the final dilution to be in order to end up with 50 cfu on a plate?

2) A 0.1 dilution is performed on a culture of bacteria in order to perform viable plate counts. From the dilution, *0.1 mL* of solution is plated on solid media, and 154 colony forming units grow on the plate. How many bacteria are in a single mL of the original culture?

3) How many microliters of original sample are required to produce a final dilution of 10^-3 in a total volume of 5 mL? 1 microliter is 10^-6 L or 10^-3 mL.

4) There are so many microbes in a single mL of culture, it is very difficult to perform one dilution to produce countable cells. Microbiologists need to perform a dilution series, where multiple dilutions are performed in sequence to arrive at the correct dilution.

Dilutions are cumulative. Multiply the series of dilutions together to find the final dilution value.

If 6 serial dilutions are performed, each with a dilution of 0.01, what is the cumulative dilution?

How is bacterial killing mediated by the complement system?