What is genetic drift? What happens to the alleles under this process? Can it be called evolution? How is it different from natural selection? Answer these problems in 3-4 sentences. You must provide a real example related to a bottleneck effect.

Catabolism and anabolism; three stages of catabolism

Conditional alleles are commonly used by geneticists to control when (temporal) and where (spatial) specific traits are expressed. In this question, you should outline a strategy utilizing the genetic tools that we have discussed during class. It might be simpler to draw a diagram of the engineered loci. Include all the components that are required for the experiment to be successful. (Tools: Cre-Lox and FLP-FRT recombination, forgot to previously list the tools)

A) What strategy could you use to switch off gene expression in liver cells?

B) Why is a conditional allele valuable for scientists when studying gene function?

C) What strategy could you use to switch on gene expression in liver cells in an adult mouse?

1. Explain the four types of cell signaling with some examples.

2. Explain the two classes of extracellular signal molecules and receptor types. Why does the receptor location differ? Include some examples for each class.

3. Explain how NO works.

4. Explain the general mechanism and function of intracellular signaling pathways.

5. Review molecular switches and the two classes which repeats earlier information on how protein activity can be regulated.

9. Explain what two types of proteins are transferred from the cytosol to the ER. How are these proteins translocated into the RER? What are some examples of proteins that would fit into each of these two categories?

10. Explain the secretory and endocytic pathways.

11. Explain vesicle budding and protein coats. 12. Explain the basic role of SNARES in vesicle docking.

13. Explain the types of covalent modifications of proteins in the ER and Golgi. Relate these modifications to concepts we have discussed, i.e. di-sulfide bonds.

14. Explain the constitutive and regulated pathways from the Golgi. Include some examples of proteins that would use each pathway.

15. Explain the basics of receptor-mediated endocytosis.

16. Explain the mannose-6-phosphate tag for the enzyme delivery to lysosomes.

Scientists have hypothesized that life arose from the mix of chemical compounds present in the prebiotic soup on the Earth's surface. Experiments in labs today have shown that fatty acids can spontaneously form various organized structures, including vesicles. How does this characteristic of fatty acids work in conjunction with known early Earth conditions to suggest a potential explanation for the origin of life?

a. evidence of minerals such as iron on early Earth supports the idea that compounds such as fatty acids could have formed vesicles, trapping these minerals and forming catalytic reaction centers.

b. Evidence of simple carbon compounds such as methane on early Earth supports the idea that larger carbon compounds such as fatty acids could have spontaneously evolved.

c. Evidence of volcanic gases such as hydrogen on early Earth support the idea that the environment was highly reactive, which would have allowed fatty acids to polymerize to form much larger biomolecules.

d. Evidence of water on early Earth supports the idea that simple fatty acids could have undergone self-assemble in a watery environment to form the first cell membranes.

An explanation of your answer would be greatly appreciated.

Topic 4: Central nervous system.

For the brain structure/ areas below, provide the following information

-Location

-General function

-Example of when the structure/ area would be active

-A disease/ disorder that affects the structure/ area, and why physiology dysfunction this would result in structures/ areas

(must complete all )

Auditory association area

Prefrontal association area

Basal ganglia

Pineal gland

Medulla oblongata

5. Explain role of the α helix in transmembrane proteins. Relate to types of amino acid residues.

6. Explain the role of the β sheet in transmembrane proteins.

7. Explain how detergents solubilize membrane proteins; give the 2 common detergents.

8. Explain the function and basic structure of the cell cortex.

9. Explain the experiments of Frye and Edidin on mouse-human hybrid cells and how it relates to types of restrictions for membrane proteins.

1. Explain the specific asymmetric phospholipid distribution in the plasma membrane.

2. Explain where lipids are synthesized and the role of flippases.

3. Explain the location of glycolipids in the plasma membrane and why this location. What is functional importance of glycolipids and glycoproteins?

4. Explain the ways that proteins can associate with the lipid bilayer and define integral membrane protein vs. peripheral membrane protein.

You are studying recessive mutations of three autosomal, linked genes in guinea pigs: fur color (y, yellow); fur texture (wv, wavy); ear size (l, large). The data in columns A and B was obtained from crosses of heterozygous F1 females with homozygous testcross males (recessive for all three traits).

Column: A             B                      C                     D                        E

a) How many sets of reciprocal phenotypes are shown? ____________________

b) In Column C, list the corresponding genotype. Account for all three traits. The first one has been provided for you as an example. For all answers in column C, use the order of traits: fur color, fur texture, ear size.

c) Indicate the type of each homolog in Column D: parental P, single crossover SCO, or double crossover DCO. The first one has been provided for you as an example.

d) On this form below or on blank paper to be submitted with this form, determine the correct order of all three genes. All work must be shown for credit. Fill in Column E above.

QUESTION 1

If an organism has 24 tetrads, how many chromosomes will its gametes have?

QUESTION 3

In an organism with five pairs of homologous chromosomes, how many different ways can the tetrads align at the metaphase I plate and how many different combinations of chromosomes will be present in this organism’s gametes?

Different alignments: ____________________

Different chromosome combinations: ___________________

QUESTION 4

1. How many different alleles can exist for a specific gene on a chromosome?

   		1
   		2
   		3
   		no limit to the number of alleles for a gene

   QUESTION 5

2. In what stage of meiosis does chromosome crossing over occur?

   		S phase
   		Prophase I
   		Metaphase I
   		Metaphase II

State THREE factors that complicate the analysis of unknown white powders by microcrystal tests?

Thank you!

Parents of a kidney transplant candidate were tested for a potential compatible kidney because the candidate demonstrated HLA antibodies. The patient's HLA antigens were typed as A1, A2, B27, B50, DR17, and DR11. Antibodies identified were specific for A3, B18, and DR7 antigens.

1.  If the mother's HLA typingis A1, A3, B35, B27, DR4, and DR11, and the father's typing is A2, A24, B50, B44, DR11, and DR17, what antigens did the father contribute?

2. List the probable HLA types of the candidate's three siblings. Select the kidney or kidneys with the best match.