1 (a) Explain the mechanism of counter-current multiplier system during the formation of urine

    in man.

   (b) What is the significance of this process to mammals living in arid of the regions earth?

Max, a 19-year-old college freshman, complains of fever, malaise, and nausea. He says he came into the clinic because he feels too weak to go to class. Additionally, he reports having no appetite. For symptom relief, Max has taken ibuprofen. Max has no previous health conditions to report except that he was told that as a small child, he had reactive airway disease. He works part time while attending college. His only sibling is alive and well. Both parents are alive, and Max’s father takes medication for hypertension. Max lives in a college dorm with 1 roommate, and his dorm houses about 150 students. He denies having a cough. Additionally, Max says that his throat is slightly sore, but he is not sure whether it is because he has been vomiting. He also says that his nose is somewhat stuffy. Max says that he does not know of anyone around who is ill but that he takes classes in lecture halls with about 100 other students several days a week. His temperature in the office is 101.2°F. Max’s ears are clear upon examination, and his throat is mildly red. His blood pressure is within the normal range, his pulse rate is 104, and his respiratory rate is 20. Max’s lungs are clear to auscultation. Based on Max’s current presentation and symptoms come up with a diagnosis. Discuss the reason for your answer include recommendations or treatments?

Multiple Part question:

A) List the three forces determining the rate of glomerular filtration (write out their full names)

B) under each one, note the materials that are moving through the membrane (be specific)

C) under each one, note which from which compartment to which compartment these materials are moving

Solve the following genetic problems. Show your workout.

1. If the parents are AO (or I^Ai) and BO (or I^Bi) genotypes for the ABO blood group, what are the possible genotypes of their children?

Clue: Blood type is determined by three alleles in humans; I^A (or A allele), I^B (or B allele), i (or O allele). Each individual receives two of these alleles; I^AI^A and I^Ai represent Blood type A; I^BI^B and I^Bi represent blood type B.  I^A and I^B alleles are dominant over allele i.  I^AI^B represents blood type AB (A and B are codominant). Two I alleles (ii) represent O type.

2. In the cross, Bb X Bb, what percentage of the offspring would have the same phenotype as the parents? what percentage of the offspring would have the same genotype as the parents?

3. A female dog with the genotype LlSs mates with a male dog with the genotype llSs.  In dogs, long hair (L) is dominant over short hair (l) and spotted coats (S) are dominant over solid coats (s).  What is the chance of getting a puppy with short hair and a solid coat?  You must show all of your work.

4. Diabetes is a recessive trait. A man and a woman who neither have diabetes each have one parent with the disorder.  If they marry and have children, what are the chances that any of their children will have diabetes? You must show your work.

5. Blue eyes appear to be recessive to dark eyes.  If two-blued people have a child, what are the chances that the child’s eyes will be dark? You must show your work.

1. During atrial fibrillation, what would be the result if all of the electrical impulses from the atria were conducted through the AV node to the ventricles? How would it affect stroke volume? Cardiac output?

Please compose an essay comparing shod and unshod walking and running gait. Please consider the following points to guide your response:

- The effect of cushioning and other footwear features on kinematics and kinetics

- Implications of footwear to improve safety and comfort in certain populations (ie the elderly, children, runners)

Part II: The Muscular System

1. List the three types of muscle in the human body.

a.  

b.  

c.  

2. Explain what distinguishes skeletal muscle from the other two types of muscles.

3. Describe the function of a tendon.

4. Define the following terms.

a. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP):

b. Creatine phosphate (CP):

5. When we say “aerobic” what element is required?

6. During exercise, friction between muscle fibers generates heat. What are two ways the body reduces this heat?

7. Explain what myoglobin is.

8. Define the following terms:

a. Muscle Hypertrophy

b. Muscle Atrophy

9. Contrast a muscle origin and a muscle insertion.

10. Complete the following table.

11. When you are lying on the floor and contract your rectus abdominus muscles, what exercise are you performing?

12. Describe what it means

a. When a muscle is called Biceps:

b. When a muscle is called Triceps:

c. When a muscle is called Quadriceps:

Part III: The Skeletal System

13. Describe an Osteocyte.

14. When speaking about long bones:

a. What is the diaphysis?

b. What is the epiphysis?

15. Contrast a compact (dense) bone and a Spongy (trabecullar) bone.  Describe where onewould find each type in the skeleton.

16. Name what is located in the hollow shaft of long bones.

17. Complete the following table.

18. What is the difference between Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification?

19. First, explain what calcitriol is. Second, explain what it does.

20. Describe the relationship between PTH (parathyroid hormone) and Calcitonin.

21. Define the following terms:

a. Osteopenia?

b. Osteoporosis?

22. Complete the following sentence: The two main divisions of the Skeletal System are

  and   .

23. List the 8 Cranial Bones.

a.  

b.  

c.  

d.  

e.  

f.  

g.  

h.   

24. Complete the following table.

25. List the number of vertebrae as specified in the Vertebral column:

a. Total number of vertebrae:

b. Number of Cervical vertebrae:

c. Number of Thoracic vertebrae:

d. Number of Lumbar vertebrae:

26. What is the Sacrum? What is the Coccyx?

27. The     bones are called the Atlas and the Axis.

28. The three main parts of the Thoracic Cage are   ,   ,

and   .

29. Part I: How many True ribs are there?

Part II: How many false ribs are there?

Part III: Why are false ribs referred to as “false?”

30. List the three parts of the Sternum.

a.  

b.  

c.  

31. Complete the table.

32. What are Phalanges?

33. Describe the coxal bones. Then explain what three bones are fused to make up the coxal bones.

34. List the two bones of the leg:

a.  

b.  

35. Complete the following sentences. Tarsals are   .

Meta Tarsals are   .

36. What is the calcaneus?

37. What does Diarthrosis mean?

6

You have learned that protein is important for body functions and that most of us get more than the RDA for protein. Why do you think the high protein diets such as The Zone and The Adkins Diet are so appealing to people who desire weight loss? Are there potential advantages and disadvantages to these diets? What would you counsel someone who was using one of these diets?

37. What are B-1 B cells? What is the role of the B-1 B cells in the immune response?

38. What is the role of marginal zone B cells in the immune response?

34. What is the role of the B-Cell in the immune response?

35. What is the difference between Memory B Cells and Plasma B Cells?

43. What is the role of Innate Lymphoid Cell 1 (ILC1)?

44. What is the role of Innate Lymphoid Cell 2 (ILC2)?

Why do both the BCR and TCR receptors have a variable domain AND a constant domain?

Explain how the following agents are involved in the excitation and contraction of skeletal muscle.

i. Acetylcholine (ACh)

ii. Calcium (Ca²⁺)

iii. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

question 56

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used medications. They may alter the production of downstream signalling molecules and so modulate various processes. What signalling molecules, and what activities, might be affected by NSAIDs? [6 marks]