Pick one specific type of connective tissue and describe in detail its appearance/cellular components/matrix and state two locations and functions of that tissue type.

Describe at least 3 different plasma proteins and their contributions to homeostasis by describing their production and function.

What is metameric segmentation, and what are its advantages? 350 WORDS 10 MARKS

Describe ejaculation from the point of view of the sperm

1. After being produced in the endoplasmic reticulum, some proteins go on to the __________ where they may undergo final modifications before being packaged to be sent along to their final destination inside or outside of the cell.

2. The cell membrane allows some molecules, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass through, while preventing other molecules such as glucose and amino acids from passing through, this means cell membranes are ______________.

Endocrine System

Hormone Classes

1. Hormones can be chemically classified as _____________. __________ are water soluble and ________ are lipid soluble
2. Water soluble hormones bind to receptors ____________ which activate ___________. Lipid soluble hormones bind to ___________ and trigger ___________.
3. Hormones may interact ________________. Interactions in which the effect of one hormone depends on prior action of another hormone are called _________. _________ interactions have opposing effects and _________ interactions have amplifying effect

Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

1. Hypothalamic hormones travel to the anterior pituitary through the ____________. TRH triggers the release of _________; CRH triggers the release of _______; GnRH triggers the release of _______; GHRH triggers the release of ________; dopamine inhibits the release of ________; somatostatin inhibits the release of ________.
2. ____________ and ___________ are made in the hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary by the _______________.
3. Hormone Effects
   1. __________ stimulates ovarian follicular growth and _________ stimulates sperm cell production; _________ stimulates the release of thyroid hormone; __________ stimulates the release of cortisol; __________stimulates milk production; _________ stimulates growth of bones and muscles
   2. Oxytocin triggers ________________ and ADH stimulates ____________.

Thyroid and Parathyroid Gland

1. Calcitonin _________________ and parathyroid hormone __________ blood calcium
2. Thyroid hormone is secreted as ___________ but the active form is ___________.
3. TH ________ATP production, _______ adrenergic receptors, and _________ brain development
   

Adrenal Gland

1. The zona glomerulosa produces _________; the zona fasciculata produces __________ and the zona reticularis produces ________.
2. Cortisol stimulates _____________; aldosterone triggers ___________; androgens trigger __________

Pancreas

1. Beta cells produce __________, alpha cells produce __________ and delta cells produce __________.
2. ___________ decreases blood glucose and _________ increases blood glucose; _________ maintains blood glucose levels
3. Type 1 diabetes is caused by the ___________; it normal onsets _________. Type 2 diabetes is caused by ___________.

Find three diseases in humans where there is a metabolic defect that results in an inability to process or metabolize specific Carbohydrates Proteins or amino acids Fats (lipids) For each disease, explain the pathophysiology of the disease and the symptoms that an individual with the disease experiences.

Discuss the structural organization of lipoprotein particles such as HDL, LDL or VLDL. List all of the biomolecules found in each and describe their function in the particle. How does their structure facilitate the function of the particles? What does each do?

What is a quick description of the Achilles tendon reflex, naming the sensory neurons, motor neurons and muscles involved?

Skeletal Muscle System

Muscle Contraction

1. The phase of the sliding filament mechanisms are activation of myosin followed by __________; the last step is _______. The detachment phase requires ___________. The power stroke phase requires __________. A crossbridge is formed between _________. Calcium binds to ________ which is necessary for _________.
2. At the neuromuscular junction, __________ is released by the neuron; it binds to ________ on the muscle cell to eventually trigger ___________. Action potentials in skeletal muscle cells are needed _________.
3. During ___________ contractions, the muscle stays at the same length; During _________ contractions, the muscle shortens; the muscle lengthens during ________ contractions
4. Type 1 muscle fibers produce ATP ________ and fatigue ________; type 2a fibers produce ATP ________ and fatigue ________; type 2b fibers produce ATP __________ and fatigue _______.

Blood

1. Blood is made up ______ plasma and _______ formed elements. Plasma is mostly ________ with dissolved __________.  
2. __________ account for most of the formed elements. These cells transport ___________. RBCs are produced in the ________ in response to ________ that is produced in the ________ in response to _________
3. White blood cells are a part of the __________. The most common white blood cells are __________ and the least common are ________. ___________ kill bacteria; _________ produce antibodies; ______ fight parasites; ________ scavenge debris.
4. Your blood type is based on the _________ on the surface of the RBCs. There are _______ possible blood types. The two most common blood types are __________. The universal donor blood type is ________; the universal acceptor blood type is _______. The possible genotypes for A, B, AB, O blood are_________. Type AB+ blood has ___________ antigens and _______antibodies. Type O+ has ________antigens and _______antibodies. Type A- blood can be safely transfused to __________ recipients

Membrane Potential

1. The resting membrane potential of a neuron is _________.   The membrane potential changes when _________. A change in membrane potential to a more positive value is called __________ and a change to a more negative value is called _______.
2. Ions flow through _________ which are controlled by voltage and ________ which are controlled by _________.
3. Neurons communicate with other neurons and targets by generating _________. Ghe neuron generates an action potential only if it reaches a threshold voltage of _________. The phases of an action potentials are _________ which is caused by entry of sodium ions, _________ which is caused by _________, and hyperpolarization which is caused by ________.
4. Once generated, action potentials propagate towards the __________. Along the way, the size of the action potential (decreases/stays the same).
5. Neurons also generate __________ which are short-lived. These signals are necessary for bringing the neuron to its ___________

Events at the Synapse

1. The arrival of action potential at axon terminal triggers _________ which triggers the release of _______ which binds to __________ on the postsynaptic neuron. Ions will enter the postsynaptic neuron to generate local potentails called ________. These local potentials will __________ to generate another _________.

Neurotransmitters

1. The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain is __________; and the most excitatory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord is ________. GABA generates ___________ in the _______ and glycine generates _________ in the _______. Other common neurotransmitters are _________ which is involved in mood disorders; _______ which is released by the parasympathetic nervous system; ________ which is released by the sympathetic nervous system.

Brain Functions

Electroencephalogram

1. The frequency of: alpha waves is ________, delta waves _______, theta waves _______, and beta waves_________.
2. Alpha waves are present during_________; delta waves are present during ________, beta waves are present during ________, and theta waves are present during

Sleep

1. The deepest stage of non-REM sleep is __________. REM sleep is also called _________. The EEG of REM is similar to the _________. The lightest sleep stage is _________. The ‘sleep chemical’ is _________. Sleep is triggered by the ________ and inhibited by the ________

Memory

1. A neuronal synapses that create memories are called _________. Memories that last for a life-time are called _________ and memories that fade after a few hours are called ________. Damage to the cerebrum may cause _________ which is the loss of long-term memory.   The inability to recall previous memories is called _________ and the inability to form new memories is called _______. The ________ is necessary to create long-term memories.

Language

1. The muscles used for speaking are controlled by _________. The meaning of words is processed by the _________. The ability to understand emotions in speech is controlled by ________ and the ability to convey emotions in speech is controlled by ________. Symptoms of fluent aphasia are ________; this is caused by _________. Symptoms of nonfluent aphasia are _________; this caused by _________

Autonomic Nervous System

1. Overview
   1. The ANS is the motor division for the control of __________. This system uses ________ pathway to its targets. The preganglionic neuron releases ___________ and the postganglionic neuron releases ________. The preganglionic neuron is __________(myelinated/unmyelinated) and the postganglionic neuron is ________ (myelineated/unmyelinated).
      
2. Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Division
   1. The preganglionic neurons travel through ____________. Most parasympathetic neurons travel through the ________ nerve. The sympathetic division uses ___________ spinal nerves.
   2. Although most organ receive dual innervations, some organs are only innervated by the ___________ division.
   3. The sympathetic division is controlled by the ____________ and the parasympathetic division is controlled by the ___________.
3. Effects
   1. The effects of parasympathetic and sympathetic activity on the following organs are
      1. Pupil diameter: S___________; P_________
      2. Heart rate: S___________; P_________
      3. Bronchiole: S___________; P_________
      4. Digestive tract: S___________; P_________
      5. Blood vessels: S___________; P_________
      6. Urine production: S___________; P_________
      7. Erection: S___________; P_________
      8. ejaculation: S___________; P_________

1. What are the functions of the spleen? If your spleen were removed [splenectomy], would you be able to fight off illness or infections effectively? Why or why not?

2. What is the role of the thymus in the human body?

3. If your tonsils are removed, how does your body develop an immune response against antigens in the throat?

4. The radical mastectomy is an operation in which a cancerous breast, surrounding tissues, and the underlying muscles of the anterior thoracic wall, plus the axillary lymph nodes, are removed. After such an operation, the arm usually swells, or becomes edematous, and is very uncomfortable -- sometimes for months. Why?

5. Could humans live without a lymphatic system? Explain why or why not.

6. Why do lymph nodes enlarge when you are sick?