Trace the pathway of the carbon dioxide from the pulmonary capillaries through the respiratory tract to the point at which it exits from Ms. Magenta’s body through her nares.

Question 1 options:

If blood calcium levels started to rise out of homeostatic range, the body would try to correct this by:

a. Releasing which hormone?
b. From where is this hormone released?
c. This hormone targets the bones. It causes which cell type to become more active (compared to another cell type).   
d. At the bones, altering the activity of the above cell type results in an increase or decrease (choose one)  in storage of calcium into the bone matrix?

e. Name one other direct target site/organ that this hormone affects?

Discuss the immune response to an extracellular bacterial pathogen. Include the branch(es) of the immune system which would mount the response, how that response would be mounted, and the major effector functions that would be observed. While you should include information on the innate immune response to your chosen pathogen, the bulk of your response should be focused on the adaptive immune response.

I'm looking for a 1-2 pages answer, but anything helps, thanks!

6. Give three examples of pathologies in which there is an upregulation of RAAS. Next to each one explain your reasoning.

7. How would high levels of angiotensin II (Ang II) affect someone with hypertension?

Part II – Grandpa’s Medications

“Now, what about your grandfather’s medications? He’s taking lisinopril and furosemide. How do those interact with your RAAS system on this diagram that you’ve made?” asked Mom.

“My professor, Dr. Sven, did mention how certain medications disrupt the system and lower blood pressure, which is why grandpa is on these medications. But I’m not sure what drug classes those particular medications belong to.” Arie picked up her iPhone and said, “Hey Siri! What is lisinopril?”

An automated friendly voice boomed, “Lisinopril is a medication of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor class used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure and after heart attacks. For high blood pressure it is usually a first line treatment…” (Wikipedia, Lisinopril, 2020).

“Ah! Lisinopril is an ACE inhibitor, and furosemide is a diuretic. Ok, now I get it. Let me show you how these drugs disrupt the RAAS pathway and lower Grandpa’s blood pressure.”

Questions

1. Explain why ACE inhibitors (ACEi) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) are prescribed to treat hypertension and heart failure.

2. A drug that amplifies the effect of bradykinin would have what effect? What diseases could it be prescribed to treat?

3. Would a patient taking an ARB have the same vasodilation effect via bradykinin as a patient taking an ACE inhibitor?

4. Spironolactone is a drug that blocks the aldosterone receptor in the renal collecting tubule. How would the sodium and potassium levels in the urine change after a patient is placed on spironolactone? Based on these changes, what are possible metabolic adverse effects of the drug?

How does the nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system work together in order to restore homeostasis in someone with type 1 Diabetes?

1. Explain the purpose of :
   • Semi-circular canals
   • Vestibule
   • Cochlea
2. Define each of the following and tell their roll in hearing:
   • Sound
   • Frequency
   • Wavelength
3. Explain:
   • Conduction Deafness
   • Sensorineural Deafness
   • Tinnitus
   • Meniere’s Syndrome
   • Motion Sickness

a. How can you differentiate between the serosa and the mucosa under the microscope? b. How is the muscularis of the stomach unlike the muscularis of the other regions of the GI tract. c. What is the main histological difference between the mucosa and the submucosa?

1. Describe the concept of P50; compare P50 from various conditions and taxa and explain how these may be adaptations to their environments.

2. Diagram and describe the removal of CO2 from working tissues and release to the environment.

3. In what form is most CO2 transported? What factors affect CO2 transport?

1. Define what an electrical potential is

2. Define what a current is

3. Define polarized

4. Why are cells described as polarized?

5. How do cells maintain their resting membrane potential?

Swallowing- Case Study

Sarah Miller is a 48 yo female who admitted to the ED with right hemiparesis, dysarthria and a reflexive cough while taking small sips of water. MRI of the brain confirmed an MCA distribution stroke. A bedside swallow evaluation was ordered which revealed the following: R facial droop with moderately dysarthric speech. Tongue deviates to the right on protrusion. Lips strength is moderately impaired. Palpation of larynx/hyoid during a dry swallow revealed mildly reduced laryngeal elevation/excursion. Vocal quality is soft and breathy. Unable to complete diakochokinetic rate due to poor approximation and coordination of movements.

1. Name 3 cranial nerves you think could be damaged and explain why?

2. What indications (ie symptoms) do you subjectively consider based on the patient?s presentation (prior to initiating the exam) just based off of what you see, hear and have read about the medical history?

3. What does the inability to complete the diadochokinetic rate tell you about the patient?s speech/swallow deficits?

1. Fick’s Law: define it and list examples where evolution has selected for traits that enhance diffusion

2. Intrinsic and extrinsic control mechanisms – provide examples in two tissues

What phrase has the same meaning as "the molecular pathways of photoreceptors"?

Suggest a single, specific malfunction in the immune system that would affect at least three other systems. For each system, explain how it would be affected and what that system would do to bring the body back to homeostasis. (Note: an infection is not necessarily a malfunction)

Name:____________________________________________

Sleep and Sleep Disorders

Practice Questions

Questions 1 – 12: Choose the best answer.

1.  Which is NOT one of the sleep theories discussed in class?  

A. Humans need sleep in order to consolidate memories.

B.  Humans need sleep in order to repair and restore systems that are worn out during waking hours.

C.  One can predict the sleep pattern of a species from their diet.

D. One can predict the sleep pattern of a species from the bumps on their heads.

2. According to your lecture, what is the average number of hours of sleep that is needed to function optimally the next day?

A.  1-3

B.  4-6

C. 8-10

D. 12-14

3. Which theory of dreaming states that the cortex incorporates sensory information that the sleeper is exposed to during sleep into the dream?

A. activation synthesis hypothesis

B.  clinico-anatomical hypothesis

C. evolutionary theory

D. melatonin hypothesis

4.  Moderate sleep deprivation is associated with all of the following behavioral symptoms EXCEPT

A. irritability.

B. problems concentrating.

C.  impaired judgement.

D. decreased immune system functioning.  

5. Biological patterns of an organism that occur on a daily basis are called

A. circadian rhythms

B. circannual rhythms

C. zeitgebers

D. free-running rhythms

6. Which of the following structures exerts the main control over sleep and temperature rhythms?

A. melatonin

B. suprachiasmatic nucleus

C. pineal gland

D.  retinohypothalamic path

7.  During a normal night's sleep, the average person experiences ___ periods of REM sleep:

A.  1-2

B.  20-25

C.  5-6

D. 10-15

8.   During this stage, the sleeper is starting to doze.

A.  EEG sleep

B.  Stage 1 sleep

C.  REM sleep

D.  Stage 4 sleep

9. During Stage 4 sleep, what is the sleeper experiencing?

A.  REM sleep

B.  very deep sleep

C.  very light sleep

D.  paradoxical sleep

10. What brain wave phenomena indicate that a person is in Stage 2 of their sleep cycle?

A.  alpha waves and sleep spindles

B.  sleep spindles and K-complexes

C.  K-complexes and alpha waves

D.  none of the above

11.  Enzo is sleeping heavily and does not hear the alarm clock, causing him to miss an important job interview. It is likely that Enzo is in which stage of sleep?

A.  Stage 1

B.  Stage 6

C.  Stage 2

D.  Stage 4

12. When are dreams most likely to occur?

A. Stage 1

B. Stage 2

C. REM sleep

D. all the above

Questions 13 – 20:   Match each sleep disorder with the correct definition/symptom.

Sleep DisorderDefinition/Symptom

____13. Sleep apneaA. Sudden shift from being awake to falling into REM sleep

____14. NarcolepsyB.  Repeated involuntary movement of the legs and arms while sleeping

____15. Night terrorsC. Ambulating while dreaming

____16. InsomniaD. Cessation of breathing during sleep

____17. REM behavior disorderE.  Speaking that typically occurs during deep sleep

____18. Sleep walkingF. Panic behavior during deep sleep

____19.  Periodic limb movement disorderG. Ambulating during deep sleep

____20. Sleep talkingH. Inability to sleep