Produce a diagram explaining the reabsorption of Ca2+ and Mg2+ at the proximal tubule of a nephron. Are these processes examples of paracellular or transcellular transport? What is the driving force that maintains these transport mechanisms?

Explain how the stomach secretes acid at a cellular level. How could you prevent the excessive acid production that triggers heartburn? What is protecting the walls of the stomach against acid?

Rapid ascent during diving can trigger decompression sickness. This condition is characterized by production of nitrogen bubbles in blood that can seriously affect the nervous system, resulting in paralysis and death. Explain the physical principles that trigger the production of nitrogen bubbles. How could you prevent this sickness? Justify all your responses

what are the fluids immediately inside and outside the lungs that make effective breathing possible. What is the origin of these fluids and the mechanism by which each acts to allow for lung ventilation.

What is the cecum's function ?

6. Diabetic Ketoacidosis can occur in a patient with severely uncontrolled diabetes. Which of the following is a key contributor to the acidosis?

a. uncontrolled gluconeogenesis during the absorptive and post-absorptive state

b. Increased liver glycogenesis during the absorptive state

c.Decreased ketone body production in the liver during the post-absorptive state

7. Which of the following statements regarding Type 1 diabetics is true?

a. Type 1 debiatics cannot produce insulin

b. Type 1 diabetics are typically treated with insulin sensitizers

c. Type 1 diabetics are insulin resistant

8. Identify the gluconeogenic pathway

a. Glycogen--- glucose

b. Fatty acid--- keto acid----glucose

c. Amino acid--- keto acid----- glucose

9. Which of the following would you expect to be associated with this presentation?

Patient- 21 year old male

Chief complaint- Abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting. increased thirst and frequency of urination

Background- Patient is a type 1-diabetic

Examination notes- Insulin pump appears to have stopped working, elevated plasma glucose levels following a finger prick.

a. Decreased serum ketones

b. increased Plasma pH

c. Increased protein glycation (AGEs) within the plasma

10. Which of the following events is most likely occurring during the postabsorptive state?

a. Glycogen is being hydrolyzed releasing individual glucose monomers into the blood

b. chylomicrons are circulating in the plasma

c. Gluconeogenesis is actively occurring in must cells within the body

Briefly explain how the eye focuses light on the retina

Particles that enter circulation often accumulate in the liver and spleen. Describe the function of the liver and spleen, including the location and function of resident macrophages. Describe two mechanisms for accumulation of particles in the liver. Provide references.

Trace the pathway of the carbon dioxide from the pulmonary capillaries through the respiratory tract to the point at which it exits from Ms. Magenta’s body through her nares.

Question 1 options:

If blood calcium levels started to rise out of homeostatic range, the body would try to correct this by:

a. Releasing which hormone?
b. From where is this hormone released?
c. This hormone targets the bones. It causes which cell type to become more active (compared to another cell type).   
d. At the bones, altering the activity of the above cell type results in an increase or decrease (choose one)  in storage of calcium into the bone matrix?

e. Name one other direct target site/organ that this hormone affects?

Discuss the immune response to an extracellular bacterial pathogen. Include the branch(es) of the immune system which would mount the response, how that response would be mounted, and the major effector functions that would be observed. While you should include information on the innate immune response to your chosen pathogen, the bulk of your response should be focused on the adaptive immune response.

I'm looking for a 1-2 pages answer, but anything helps, thanks!

6. Give three examples of pathologies in which there is an upregulation of RAAS. Next to each one explain your reasoning.

7. How would high levels of angiotensin II (Ang II) affect someone with hypertension?

Part II – Grandpa’s Medications

“Now, what about your grandfather’s medications? He’s taking lisinopril and furosemide. How do those interact with your RAAS system on this diagram that you’ve made?” asked Mom.

“My professor, Dr. Sven, did mention how certain medications disrupt the system and lower blood pressure, which is why grandpa is on these medications. But I’m not sure what drug classes those particular medications belong to.” Arie picked up her iPhone and said, “Hey Siri! What is lisinopril?”

An automated friendly voice boomed, “Lisinopril is a medication of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor class used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure and after heart attacks. For high blood pressure it is usually a first line treatment…” (Wikipedia, Lisinopril, 2020).

“Ah! Lisinopril is an ACE inhibitor, and furosemide is a diuretic. Ok, now I get it. Let me show you how these drugs disrupt the RAAS pathway and lower Grandpa’s blood pressure.”

Questions

1. Explain why ACE inhibitors (ACEi) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) are prescribed to treat hypertension and heart failure.

2. A drug that amplifies the effect of bradykinin would have what effect? What diseases could it be prescribed to treat?

3. Would a patient taking an ARB have the same vasodilation effect via bradykinin as a patient taking an ACE inhibitor?

4. Spironolactone is a drug that blocks the aldosterone receptor in the renal collecting tubule. How would the sodium and potassium levels in the urine change after a patient is placed on spironolactone? Based on these changes, what are possible metabolic adverse effects of the drug?

How does the nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system work together in order to restore homeostasis in someone with type 1 Diabetes?

1. Explain the purpose of :
   • Semi-circular canals
   • Vestibule
   • Cochlea
2. Define each of the following and tell their roll in hearing:
   • Sound
   • Frequency
   • Wavelength
3. Explain:
   • Conduction Deafness
   • Sensorineural Deafness
   • Tinnitus
   • Meniere’s Syndrome
   • Motion Sickness