The rings of Saturn are said to “disappear” every 15 years. Explain this

phenomenon.

The Giant Planets are now split into two groups - Gas Giants and Ice Giants. What is the difference between the two groups? Which planets are in each group?

What are the different types of diabetes, and discuss the roles of insulin and glucagon in maintaining blood glucose levels.

Which of the following is not a description of chondrite meteorites?

a. They have a high proportion of carbon b. They contain melted grains called chondrules c. They are only found on the Moon d. They come from C-type asteroids e. They represent the most common find

Which statement is true about the role of the pancreas?

a. The exocrine cells of the pancreas secrete insulin and glucagon into the duodenum.

b. The endocrine cells of the pancreas secrete zymogens into the duodenum.

c. The exocrine cells of the pancreas secrete zymogens into the blood.

d. The endocrine cells of the pancreas secrete insulin and glucagon into the blood.

Which statement is true about the role of the autonomic nervous system in controlling the digestive process?

a. Parasympathetic neurons or the smell of food can activate the cephalic phase of digestion, leading to increased gastric secretions.

b. Sympathetic neurons or the smell of food can activate the cephalic phase of digestion, leading to decreased gastric secretions.

c. Parasympathetic neurons or the smell of food can activate the cephalic phase of digestion, leading to decreased gastric secretions.

d. Sympathetic neurons or the smell of food can activate the cephalic phase of digestion, leading to increased gastric secretions.

Which statement about regulation of the digestive process is correct?

a. Beta cells of the pancreas have receptors for GIP which produce insulin when stimulated, causing an increase in levels of blood glucose.

b. Beta cells of the pancreas have receptors for CCK which produce insulin when stimulated, causing an increase in levels of blood glucose.

c. Beta cells of the pancreas have receptors for CCK which produce insulin when stimulated, causing a decrease in levels of blood glucose.

d. Beta cells of the pancreas have receptors for GIP which produce insulin when stimulated, causing a decrease in levels of blood glucose.

Find a human disease that results in dysplasia caused by prolonged chronic inflammation. Discuss the pathophysiology, symptoms and other abnormalities and treatment (if any).

Find a disease other than Epidermolysis Bullosa that affects one of the cell-cell junctions or cell-matrix junctions discused in class. Describe (a) the pathophysiology, (b) the symptoms or other abnormalities and (c) the treatment, if any.

Find two diseases that affect mitochondrial function. For each disease (a) Discuss the pathophysiology of the disorder, (b) the symptoms and other abnormalities a patient experiences and (c) the treatment, if any.  

Muscle & Neurotransmitter Case Study (CS2) Name:

Case Study: Muscle Weakness

Chief Complaint: A 26-year-old woman with muscle weakness in the face.

Patient Presentation:

A 26-year-old woman with muscle weakness in the face.

Patient History:
Jill Rothman, a 26-year-old gymnastics instructor, presents with complaints of muscle weakness in her face that comes and goes, and has been getting worse over the past two months. Her symptoms get worse by the end of an active day. Most notably, she complains that her "jaw gets tired" as she chews and that swallowing has become difficult.

She also notes diplopia ("double vision") which seems to come on late in the evening, particularly after reading for a few minutes. At work, it has become increasingly difficult to "spot" her gymnasts during acrobatic moves because of upper arm weakness.

Physical Exam:
- she has ptosis ("drooping") of both eyelids after repeated blinking exercises.

- When smiling, she appears to be snarling – indicating asymmetry in contraction of facial muscles.

Tests:

- Single fiber electromyography (EMG or muscle test) testing revealed progressive muscle weakness, and decreased strength of contraction, of the distal arm flexor muscles upon repeated mild shocks (5 shocks per second) of the ulnar and median nerves.
- Her symptoms and EMG findings were reversed within 40 seconds of intravenous administration of edrophonium (Tensilon) - an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (ACh-EI).
- A CT scan of Jill’s chest reveals thymus hyperplasia.
- Blood testing also revealed high levels of an ACh receptor antibody in her plasma.

Instructions: Use what you’ve learned about muscle physiology, and searching Google, to come up with:

A) A reasonable diagnosis for Jill’s condition: (HINT – if you type in Jill’s symptoms (in bold), and edrophonium, into google, you’ll quickly find out what the disorder is most likely to be.)

Diagnosis? ________Myasthenia gravis _________________________________________________

and
B) A reasonable course of pharmacological treatment, and WHY that treatment helps her, based on the diagnosis: (Google search for this disorder)

Treatment(s)? Medications such as Cholinesterase inhibitors,Corticosteroids and Immunosuppressants some of these medications can work together to help improve muscle contraction and muscle strength. Intravenous therapy could also be a treatment use such as Plasmapheresis,Intravenous immunoglobulin, and Monoclonal antibody these a blood transfusion that could be used it where you exchange plasma to filtrare overactive immune cells in the blood signaling your muscles to move. Lastly, surgery could also an option to remove the thymus gland.

Questions:

1. Why is this young woman experiencing difficulty chewing and double vision (diplopia)?

Answer 1.

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2. How are the anti-acetylcholine receptor antibodies interfering with her normal skeletal muscle activity?

(Why are ACh receptors important for muscles to work correctly? What happens to muscle function when antibodies block ACh receptors?)

Answer 2.
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3. What is the significance of Jill’s distal arm flexor muscles not responding well to relatively low frequency stimulation? Why does repetitive nerve stimulation result in decreased strength of the muscle contractions?

Answer 3.

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4. How do the anticholinesterase drugs act to improve Jill's skeletal muscle function?

Answer 4.

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5. Why are nausea, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and excessive salivation all side effects of the anticholinesterase drug she is taking?

Answer 5.
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6. Why is atropine beneficial in treating the gastrointestinal side effects mentioned in question #5?

Answer 6. ___________________________________________________________________________

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7. What is the significance of the enlarged thymus gland in diagnosing Jill with Myasthenia gravis? What is the thymus gland (what is its function)?

Answer 7.
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8. How will the corticosteroid prednisone benefit this patient?

Answer 8.
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9. Why must Jill undergo “plasmapheresis” when her symptoms become especially severe?

Answer 9.

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10. Jill's doctor advises her that she is at increased risk for respiratory failure. Explain why this is so.

Answer 10.

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11. In addition to being aware of respiratory problems, Jill's doctor also advises her to take her time when eating, especially when swallowing food, to avoid aspiration pneumonia. Why is this?

Answer 11.
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12. Jill’s doctor recommends that she stay on treatment for 6 months and then come back in for a re-check of her thymus with another CT scan of her chest. Why is this?

Answer 12.
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Could someone please explain the consequences of low lung compliance. Thank you

7. Having begun and enjoyed resistance training, Emily is looking at ways that she can get stronger. Describe the factors that increase the force of muscle contraction .

8. List and compare the three different types of muscle .

9. Describe the events that occur at the neuromuscular junction that result in a muscle contraction .

1)How the absorption of nutrients is affected if food moved through the small intestine at a faster rate?

2)Cholecystectomy is the surgical removal of the gallbladder. It is a common treatment of gallstones that cause obstruction of bile flow from the gallbladder into the duodenum. a) Explain why taking vitamin supplements would be required in such case. b) List the affected vitamins. c) What adjustments to their daily routine might they have to perform in order to accommodate their loss? Explain your answer

3)It is 11:00 in the morning and Nairobi didn’t take her breakfast yet. Passing by the cafeteria, a piece of cake caught her eye and she starts to have some salivation. a) What type of physiological process is triggered? b) Which phase of the reflex is being activated? c) List two events/things that will stimulate this phase. d) What happens during this phase and what is the reason this is happening?

describe gastric factors that promote emptying of stomach

Opioid analgesics mimic endogenous opioids by activating opioid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous systems to produce analgesia, respiratory depression, sedation and constipation. The product information for morphine indicates the following information:

“Chronic use of opioid analgesics may be associated with the development of physical dependence.”

Discuss this statement including a simple explanation (e.g. that could be understood by an individual without expertise in pharmacology) of what this statement means, examples of physical dependence effects that may be anticipated for opioids specifically, and ONE strategy that could be utilised to minimise the detrimental effects of physical dependence. Please clearly highlight the reasoning underlying your answers. (NOTE: this is worth 8 marks, so will require a detailed explanation)