3. The doctors are concerned that the fracture may have impacted on the epiphyseal plate. What is the epiphyseal plate and why is this important for Emily ?

4. Briefly outline the steps involved in fracture repair .

1. Briefly describe anorexia nervosa and how a diet lacking in nutrients may contribute to an increased risk of bone fracture .

2. Due to anorexia nervosa Emily is experiencing amenorrhea, or the absence of her menstrual cycle. How might this symptom be related Emily’s fracture ?

Chapter 1 –

Know and Understand the characteristics of living organisms.

Know and understand what is meant by the terms biology, histology, anatomy and physiology.

Know and understand what is meant by homeostasis, and what a failure of homeostasis can lead to.

Know and understand the various types of feedback mechanisms and examples of each.

Know and understand the various terminology regarding locations on the body.

Chapter 2 –

Know and understand what matter is

Know and understand what atoms are and what the structure of an atom is, including how many electrons are in each shell, what the atomic number and mass represent, what molecules are, what compounds are, what isotopes are, what ions are, etc.

Know and understand the differences between Ionic and Covalent Bonding

Know and understand what polar molecules are

Know and understand the special characteristic of water which make it important to living things

Know and understand the concepts of acids and bases including what each are and what the pH scale measures as well as what buffers are and what they do

Know what monomers and polymers are and what types of monomers make up each of the types of polymers and the reactions used to build up and break down polymers

Know and understand the basic structure of Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids and Nucleic Acids including unique characteristics of each, and what each is used for in living things.

Know and understand the different levels of organization of proteins and how shape is critical to their function, as well as what can cause the shape to change.

Know and understand the differences and similarities between DNA and RNA

Know and understand the composition, structure and function of enzymes including how to speed up reaction rates, etc.

Chapter 3 –

Know and understand what the cell theory states

Know and understand the differences between Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes

Know and understand the names of, the structure of, and the functions of each of the organelles

Know and understand the Endosymbiotic Hypothesis

Know and understand the basic structure, function, and characteristics of the plasma membrane including but not limited to the phopsholipid bilayer, the embedded proteins, the carrier and channel proteins, the glycocalyx, glycolipids, glycoproteins, etc.

Know and understand that structurally, the plasma membrane is composed of a bilayer of lipids.

Know and understand the concept that Cell membranes are said to be selectively permeable, and understand the various ways of getting things across the membrances including which require energy and which do not, and what special features or characteristics are necessary for each.

Know and understand the concept of tonicity and what happens to cells when placed in isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions.

Mitosis;

What happens during stages of mitosis and meiosis in plants and in animals.

Differences between Meiosis and Mitosis

What happens to DNA when goes from chromatin to form chromosomes.

Understand Diploid vs. Haploid and in Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Sequence of stages of meiosis and mitosis.

How does cell division differ between animal and plant cells?

Patterns of Inheritance;

Know what alleles, loci, genes and homologous chromosomes are.

Know the concepts of Mendel’s research and his law of segregation.

Know the differences between a phenotype, a genotype and a gamete.

Understand basic dominant/recessive concepts including being able to answer problems and do punnet squares, as well as understanding test crosses and monohybrid and dihybrid crosses.

Understand codominance, sex-linked inheritance, polygenic inheritance and incomplete dominance including being able to answer problem questions regarding them.

Understand what a karyotype is, how it is performed, and what it can be used for. Also, ways the cells can be obtained to create the karyotype. Know what non-disjunction means, and what monosomy and trisomy mean.

Cellular Respiration

Know and understand the basic concepts and principles of Cellular Respiration including the stages, overall reactions, and main concepts, and molecules participating in the reactions.

DNA

Know and Understand that DNA is the hereditary material found in cells, and know it’s structure, composition, and replication method and be able to compare it to RNA’s. Also know the different types of RNA and their function.

Be familiar with the flow of inherited information from DNA → RNA → protein. And know the concepts of transcription and translation including where each occurs and what each does.

Know the different types of Gene mutations and causes and affects of mutations.

Cancer;

Know the differences between normal cells and cancer cells, as well as how cancer develops and progresses.

Know what apoptosis refers to.

Know possible causes of and treatments for cancer, as well as how to protect yourself against cancer.

Chapter 5 -

Tissues –

Know and understand the differences between the various types of tissues covered including characteristic features and where you might expect to find the tissue.

Know and understand how we categorize the various types of epithelial tissues including shapes and numbers of layers including different types epithelial cells as well as exocrine and endocrine glands.

Know and understand the difference between Neurons and Neuroglial Cells including the basic anatomy of a neuron

Know and understand the differences between the 3 Types of Muscle Cells

Know and understand the differences between the various types of connective tissues covered including characteristic features and where you might expect to find it.

Integument –

Know and understand the functions of the integument

Know and understand the anatomy of the skin, including the various layers and their features

Know and understand the physiology of how nutrients are supplied to the skin

Know and understand what happens with injuries to the skin, including severe burns

Know and understand the different types of skin cancer

Bone and Skeletal System –

Know and understand the functions of the skeletal system

Know and understand the different parts of the Axial Skeleton that we went over in class

Know and understand the different parts of the Appendicular Skeleton that we went over in class

Know and understand the structure of bone, including the various types of cells in bone

Know and understand the special features and characteristics of bone

Know and understand the different parts of different types of bones

Know and understand the 2 methods of bone development that we discussed

Know and understand the process of the healing of a fracture

Know and understand the concept of bone remodeling

Know and understand what a bursa is and what bursitis is

Know and understand the differences between the various types of joints

Know and understand the various motions of the skeletal system

Know and understand the concept of how Osteoporosis develops

Know the anatomy of any specific bones we discussed in lecture

Nervous System –

Know and understand what a Neuron is and it’s anatomy

Know and understand what Neuroglial tissue is

Know and understand an Action Potential and how it occurs and travels down an axon, including refractory period

Know and understand white matter of CNS vs. Gray matter

Know and understand peripheral vs. central nervous system

Know and understand Saltatory vs. standard conduction

Know and understand synapses and neurotransmitters

Know and understand the different parts of the autonomic nervous system including Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Nervous Systems and Dual Innervation

Know and understand the different parts of human brain and especially the cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata and what the corpus callosum is

Know and understand the parts of a Reflex arc as well as the anatomy of the spinal cord and the dorsal and ventral roots as well as the dorsal root ganglion

Know and understand the anatomy involved in the processes of hearing and vision

Know and understand the physiology involved in the processes of hearing and vision, including being able to trace light and/or sound waves as they enter the body and are processed as sight or hearing.

Know and understand CSF and the various meninges of the brain and spinal cord

Know and understand the anatomy of spinal nerves and the concept of dermatomes

Muscles and Muscular System

Know and understand the anatomical structure of muscle fibers and muscles

Know and understand the cellular level features of muscle including sarcoplasmic reticulum and the relationship between thin and thick filaments

Know and understand the various layers of connective tissue covering in muscle fibler and muscles

Know and understand what is meant by the origin and the insertion of muscles

Know and understand the concept of how muscles get stimulated by nerves

Know and understand the principles of how a muscle contracts

Know and understand what is meant by the various types of muscle contraction are

Know and understand the differences between fast and slow twitch muscle fibers

Know and understand the concepts of recruitment, twitch, tetany, and fatigue

Know the anatomy of and the origin and insertion of the muscles we discussed in lecture

I am having a hard time understanding these two questions. If someone can explain that would be great.

1) Explain the steps that enables body to metabolize fat to ATP?

2) Write out the amount of ATP, NADH, FADH2 produced in each step of cellular metabolism of a glucose.

What are the effects of this disorder on perception of the stimulus and homeostasis?

Disorder - Otosclerosis

1. List 10 body mechanisms that are maintained in homeostasis by negative feedback. Why does positive feedback usually lead to disease or death? Describe two exceptions to positive feedback leading to disease or death.

Using three examples for two body systems, explain the physiological concept of structure function relationships - structure enables function

1. Explain how force generation by human skeletal muscle can be increased to pick up increasingly heavy loads. In your answer, include the terms summation and motor unit.

How does GPCR work with opioid receptors and the antagonist Narcan?

1. Describe the effect of a mutation in the gene that encodes for the C3 protein of the complement pathway.

1. How do B and T cells recognize specific antigens?
2. What are two types of acquired immunity? Describe each and give an example.
3. Explain the process from the activation of the B cell to the production of antibodies.
4. How do cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells?

1. Explain the pathophysiological conditions which necessitate the use of dialysis machine.
2. Explain the mechanism underlying dialysis using a typical dialysis machine.
3. Explain the challenges involved in the use of the dialysis machine

Written form: What do you think would happen if the receptors on a target cell become resistant to the hormone? Do you know any disease related to this?

1. Please analyze the next image in rest, consider the muscle, tendons, bones, etc and make a mechanical model and show the free body diagram.
2. Simulate the behavior of this body for two forward steps.

   Image:

Briefly describe how lactate is formed within skeletal muscle during exercise. Consider the exercise intensity and the metabolic system required for lactate formation. Then, describe why lactate is physiologically relevant for an athlete and not just some waste byproduct that you want to clear.