Describe the adaptive immune response of the body to (and include attack mechanisms)

a. invading bacteria.

b. invading viruses.

Cardiovascular System

Blood

1. Blood is made up ______ plasma and _______ formed elements. Plasma is mostly ________ with dissolved __________.  
2. __________ account for most of the formed elements. These cells transport ___________. RBCs are produced in the ________ in response to ________ that is produced in the ________ in response to _________
3. White blood cells are a part of the __________. The most common white blood cells are __________ and the least common are ________. ___________ kill bacteria; _________ produce antibodies; ______ fight parasites; ________ scavenge debris.
4. Your blood type is based on the _________ on the surface of the RBCs. There are _______ possible blood types. The two most common blood types are __________. The universal donor blood type is ________; the universal acceptor blood type is _______. The possible genotypes for A, B, AB, O blood are_________. Type AB+ blood has ___________ antigens and _______antibodies. Type O+ has ________antigens and _______antibodies. Type A- blood can be safely transfused to __________ recipients

Heart Physiology

1. The period of ventricular relaxation is called _________ and the period of ventricular contraction is called _________. The first heart sound is heard during _________ and the second heart sound is heard during ________. The volume of blood in one ventricle at the end of systole is called _________; the volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of diastole is called ________; the volume of blood that is ejected during systole is called the _________
2. The 5 phases of the cardiac cycle are ____________. Blood leaves the ventricles during __________; blood enters the ventricles during ________.
3. The pacemaker cells of the heart are located in the ___________. Pacemaker cells are needed in order to activate __________ which are responsible for ____________.   Electrical activity spreads from the SA node to the ____________ and finally to the ________ which trigger the contraction of the ________.
4. The three phases of the action potential of non-pacemaker cells are __________. ________ is caused by the influx of _________. Calcium influx during the ________ triggers the release of calcium from the _________. This calcium is necessary to allow for ________
5. The three waves of the EKG are ___________. The _________ precedes ventricular contraction; the ________ precedes atrial contraction. Repolarization of the ventricles generates the ________.
6. The cardiac output is __________ it is equal to SV x ______. The cardiac reserve is the ________
7. The maximum pressure generated by the ventricle is called the ___________. The minimum pressure generated by the ventricle is called the _________. The average pressure during one cardiac cycle is called the _________. The SP, DP, PP, MAP of a patient with a blood pressure reading of 120/80 is ___________.
8. The baroreceptor reflex: High blood pressure activates baroreceptors in the _______ which relay information through CN ________ to the __________ and _________ centers. The integrating centers will _______ blood vessels and __________ HR which will ________. Low blood pressure will lead to ______ of blood vessels, _______ of contractility, and ________ HR.
9. The DP and SP values for Normal blood pressure, Prehypertension, Stage 1 hypertension and stage 2 hypertension are _________
   
   

Skeletal Muscle System

Muscle Contraction

1. The phase of the sliding filament mechanisms are activation of myosin followed by __________; the last step is _______. The detachment phase requires ___________. The power stroke phase requires __________. A crossbridge is formed between _________. Calcium binds to ________ which is necessary for _________.
2. At the neuromuscular junction, __________ is released by the neuron; it binds to ________ on the muscle cell to eventually trigger ___________. Action potentials in skeletal muscle cells are needed _________.
3. During ___________ contractions, the muscle stays at the same length; During _________ contractions, the muscle shortens; the muscle lengthens during ________ contractions
4. Type 1 muscle fibers produce ATP ________ and fatigue ________; type 2a fibers produce ATP ________ and fatigue ________; type 2b fibers produce ATP __________ and fatigue _______.

Endocrine System

Hormone Classes

1. Hormones can be chemically classified as _____________. __________ are water soluble and ________ are lipid soluble
2. Water soluble hormones bind to receptors ____________ which activate ___________. Lipid soluble hormones bind to ___________ and trigger ___________.
3. Hormones may interact ________________. Interactions in which the effect of one hormone depends on prior action of another hormone are called _________. _________ interactions have opposing effects and _________ interactions have amplifying effect

Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

1. Hypothalamic hormones travel to the anterior pituitary through the ____________. TRH triggers the release of _________; CRH triggers the release of _______; GnRH triggers the release of _______; GHRH triggers the release of ________; dopamine inhibits the release of ________; somatostatin inhibits the release of ________.
2. ____________ and ___________ are made in the hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary by the _______________.
3. Hormone Effects
   1. __________ stimulates ovarian follicular growth and _________ stimulates sperm cell production; _________ stimulates the release of thyroid hormone; __________ stimulates the release of cortisol; __________stimulates milk production; _________ stimulates growth of bones and muscles
   2. Oxytocin triggers ________________ and ADH stimulates ____________.

Thyroid and Parathyroid Gland

1. Calcitonin _________________ and parathyroid hormone __________ blood calcium
2. Thyroid hormone is secreted as ___________ but the active form is ___________.
3. TH ________ATP production, _______ adrenergic receptors, and _________ brain development
   

Adrenal Gland

1. The zona glomerulosa produces _________; the zona fasciculata produces __________ and the zona reticularis produces ________.
2. Cortisol stimulates _____________; aldosterone triggers ___________; androgens trigger __________

Pancreas

1. Beta cells produce __________, alpha cells produce __________ and delta cells produce __________.
2. ___________ decreases blood glucose and _________ increases blood glucose; _________ maintains blood glucose levels
3. Type 1 diabetes is caused by the ___________; it normal onsets _________. Type 2 diabetes is caused by ___________.

Describe the morphology of the inflammation caused by the resistance of the organism?

PART A QUESTIONS:

Choose 1 variable from the list below:

 low blood calcium levels

 low blood sodium levels

Then, perform research to answer the following questions about the variable you chose.

A) Determine the negative feedback cycle by which the variable you chose is restored to normal blood levels. List the 5 components of the cycle in order, like this:

1. Variable = choose 1 from list above

2. sensor/receptor =

3. control center =

4. effector(s) =

5. physiological response(s) =

B) Name at least 3 organ systems involved in regulating the variable that you chose and describe HOW each system is involved. Hint: use Chapter 9 covering the endocrine system as one of your references. NOTE: this question asks for the names & descriptions of 3 SYSTEMS (ex. cardiovascular system), not individual organs (ex. heart)

. II. A&P: The human body is capable of performing a variety of functions due to its complex structural organization (anatomy). Choose 2 human organs, ex. stomach, eye, triceps muscle, heart, etc. For each organ that you chose:

A) List 5 words which describe the organ's anatomy ~ such as shape, size, structure, color, location, texture, tissue composition and organization, solid/hollow, hard/soft ~ these are examples of anatomical (structural) descriptors; words that describe anatomy are usually adjectives

B) List at least 2 functions of each organ that you chose. Physiology includes what the organ does, why the body needs it, and the jobs achieved by that organ related to serving the body as a whole in order to maintain health ~ such as ability to contract, digest, secrete, communicate, regulate, transport, clean, protect, etc. ~ functions are usually verbs (action words)

Part B: Biochemistry (Ch. 2) (20 points)

INTRODUCTION: Use your textbook (Ch. 2) and reliable websites to answer the following question related to biochemistry in the human body. Write your answers in complete sentences with correct spelling and grammar. Provide definitions for any scientific terms included in your answer.

PART B FORMAT EXAMPLE: For each numbered item, write the number, the topic of the question (in UPPER CASE font) and your answer(s) to the questions. Follow the example below.

1. ELEMENTS

A answer

B. answer

2. TRACE ELEMENTS

Write TRUE or FALSE and justify your answer

3. etc.

PART B QUESTIONS:

1) ELEMENTS

A. Name the 5 most abundant elements in the human body, in order of most abundant to least.

B. Create a mnemonic to remember this information. HINT: refer to this website to learn about mnemonics: https://literaryterms.net/mnemonic/

2) TRACE ELEMENTS TRUE or FALSE: Trace elements are not required for human life. Justify your response by defining what a “trace element” is and discussing 2 examples that support your answer.

3) CHEMICAL EQUATION

A. Balance this equation: C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP

B. Which chemicals are the reactants (substrates)? Name them.

C. Which are the products? Name them.

D. What is the name of this chemical reaction?

E. Cells must be able to perform this chemical reaction TO STAY ALIVE. Why is this reaction critical for cell life?

F. This reaction produces the most common cellular waste product in the body – carbon dioxide. High levels of carbon dioxide cause blood pH to fall, making plasma acidic – this can lead to metabolic problems. How does the body get rid of CO2?.

4) SOLUTIONS Plasma is the liquid component of blood (cells have been removed). It is mostly made of water plus solutes. It is one of many aqueous solutions in the human body.

A. What is the solvent in plasma?

B. Name at least 5 solutes in plasma.

C. In addition to blood (plasma), there are other water-based solutions present inside the human body or secreted/excreted from the body which are water-based. Name 3 other aqueous solutions that the human body produces.

5) SUBATOMIC PARTICLES & ATOM STABILITY

A. When is an atom most stable?

B. Which subatomic particles participate in bond formation?

C. Where are these particles located?

6) CHEMICAL BONDS

A. Name and define the 3 types of chemical bonds.

B. Which type of bond is the strongest? Which is the weakest?

7) MACROMOLECULES Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules which are polymers. These macromolecules are in our food, bloodstream, and the structural components of the cell. Name the monomers (smallest building blocks) of each type of macromolecule below:

A. Carbohydrates:

B. Proteins:

C. Nucleic acids:

*Can someone please answer all of these I have no idea

Shaun has pneumonia. Pneumonia is a lung infection that causes the alveoli to accumulate pus and/or fluid. How does this effect the diffusion of oxygen into the blood?

Pathophysiology of Cardiogenic Pulmonary Oedema (300words)

Consider the brain areas and connections pictured in the simplified basal ganglia circuit. Parkinson’s disease results from the degeneration of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). Dopamine can inhibit or excite neurons in the putamen, a sub-division of the striatum. Describe how this damage causes a chain of effects on activity in other basal ganglia areas and the structures they ultimately output to, and how this results in hypokinesia (reduced movements) in two different ways. Make sure to refer differentially to the ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ pathways.

Thromboembolic disorders.

A. Result in uncontrolled bleeding.

B. Include thrombus formation, a clot in a broken blood vessel

C. Include thrombus formation, a clot moving with the circulatory system

D Are caused by Vitamin K deficiency

1. Describe the three important mechanisms for returning blood back to the heart during exercise.

- respiratory pump

- muscle pump

- valves in the veins

Case scenario

Mr. C, 50 years old, is an amateur soccer player who regularly plays with his friends over weekend. He has chronic anterior right hip pain and weakness over his groin region for 5 years. One day, when he was playing soccer, he was injured by another player who crushed on him from lateral side of his left leg. Then, he fell down on the grassland after twisting his left knee and ankle due to the crush. He started to feel pain and weakness over his left leg from knee to ankle. He could not move his left leg to stand up. When he fell down, he fell on the leg of that player which caused pain, swelling, numbness and weakness over the posterior side of his own left leg. Then, he was send to the emergency room of a nearby hospital. The doctor of the emergency room of the hospital assessed his legs and arranged X-ray check for him. Your supervisor asked you to identify all key anatomical structures in the initial assessment that are related to his hip, knee and ankle discomfort according to the above information. You need to provide clear rationale to support your answers when you report to your supervisor.

Please answer according to the following guidance:

1. What bone(s), bony landmark(s) and joint(s) can be involved in his hip, knee and ankle problems? Please list out accordingly and support with corresponding reasons.

2. What muscle(s) and soft tissue(s) can be involved in his hip, knee and ankle problems? Please list out accordingly and support with corresponding reasons. The relevant origin and insertion should be included.

3. What nerve (nerves) can be involved in his hip, knee and ankle problems? Please list out accordingly and support with corresponding reasons.

4. What artery (arteries) and vein (veins) are involved in his problems mentioned above? Please list out accordingly and support with corresponding reasons.

5. What lower limb functional movements that can be affected according to his leg conditions? Why?

Does anyone have old exams of anatomy and physiology 2086 of professor Lisa Smith?