Describe the functional anatomy of the kidneys.

Write a few sentences comparing bulk flow in the glomerular capillaries to other systemic capillaries.

Describe primary and secondary active transport. What does it mean that they are active? What is the difference between primary and secondary transport? How do you determine what flows which direction from the components in the apical (lumen) and basolateral (interstitial) side?

How do you solve problems with the glomerular filtration rate, renal threshold, transport maxima, and excretion rates? Why does it matter?

Describe the structures of excretion and the function of each in the process.

What is the effect of prenatal testosterone experience on sexual behavior? Study of homosexuals: what is the probability of a monozygotic twin being a homosexual. For a dizygotic twin? List the differences between "tournament" and "pair-bonding" species

Describe the primary language areas of the brain. Include its anatomical location, function, Brodmann’s area, interconnections with other brain regions and the consequences of a lesion in each area.

What is a digestive reflex? Why are they important for efficient digestion of nutrients? Examples of how the digestive system responds to stimuli to get ready to break down the food that we eat into digestible molecules?

Read the following case study and answer the questions that follow. Submit your answers to this Dropbox.

The Case of the Coughing Housewife

Jessica, a fifty-nine year old mother of four, moved from a ranch in Colorado to Los Angeles, after the death of her husband, to be closer to her oldest son and his family. She has been in Los Angeles for 18 months and has noticed that she is experiencing shortness of breath which has worsened over the last six months. For the last week, she has been coughing and bringing up yellow mucus. She also noticed swelling in her ankles so she decided to visit a physician about her condition.

Jessica's family and medical history include a negative history of asthma or allergies, lack of occupational or home exposure to asbestos, a previous smoking history (one package of cigarettes per day between the ages of 16 and 52), episodes of bronchitis, treated with antibiotics on an outpatient basis, and a positive history of heart disease (father at 52 and brother at 56). Jessica has no history of serious illness, including heart disease, and her weight is within five pounds of her "desired" weight. She usually coughs in the morning to "clear her throat", but there is usually only a small amount of white mucus.

Her nurse practitioner conducts a general physical examination with the following results. Jessica's skin is normal (no rashes or cyanosis) and her nervous system is functioning normally. Her body temperature was 98.4°F while her pulse was regular at 95 beats per minute with an occasional premature beat. Jessica's blood pressure was within normal limits, however her jugular veins were slightly distended. Her respiratory rate was 28 breaths per minute; she breathed with pursed lips and used her accessory respiratory muscles more than would be expected. Jessica presented with a barrel chest and mild dyspnea when climbing onto the examination table. When listening to her breathing, the nurse practitioner noticed that Jessica had prolonged expiration accompanied by expiratory wheezes. Evaluation of her abdomen indicated no masses or tenderness, but she presented with both hepatomegaly and splenomegaly. All of her extremities were normal with the exception of bilaterally pedal edema.

Based on these results, the nurse practitioner suspected a pulmonary disorder and, after consultation with a physician, ordered laboratory tests (blood and sputum), spirometry and chest x-rays. The results of the laboratory tests were as follows: plasma bicarbonate = 38 mEq/L, hematocrit = 49%, white blood cell count = 9000, pH = 7.38; PaCO2 = 56, and PaO2 = 54. Analysis of the sputum sample indicated the presence of epithelial cells, polymorphonucleocytes and gram positive diplococci. Jessica's 1 second forced expiratory volume (FEV1) was 1.5 L/sec and her forced vital capacity (FVC) was 4 L. These values were 40% and 83% of normal, respectively. Results of the chest x-ray indicated scarring and hyperinflation of the lungs.

The results of these tests coupled with the physical examination and history lead to a diagnosis of emphysema. Jessica was prescribed antibiotics for the infection and oxygen by nose as well as a β2-agonist nebulizer as an acute treatment and requested to stay for observation and stabilization. After Jessica's condition was stabilized she was discharged and given a prescription for an inhaler containing a β2-agonist to be used as needed. She was also encouraged to exercise regularly and follow the nutritional guidelines she was given. Jessica was also informed that if the symptoms either worsened or did not lessen within the next week, to return and her treatment would be reevaluated and would possibly include nocturnal oxygen and an inhaler containing corticosteroids.

Questions:

1. What risk factors and symptoms did Jessica present with prior to the physical examination that suggested a pulmonary disorder?
   
2. How did the physical examination, chest x-ray, and spirometry confirm this hypothesis?
   
3. Identify the muscles involved in respiration.
   
4. How are these muscles responsible for the process of ventilation?
   
5. If her condition does not progress, why would corticosteroids be used in the inhaler?

Multiple Choice

1. The mechanisms of nerve impulse transmission include:

a. Decrease in Na⁺ permeability → Repolarization → Na⁺ influx stops → Depolarization

b.  Resting potential → Depolarization → Repolarization → Resting potential

c. Resting potential → Repolarization → Depolarization → Resting potential

d. Myelinization of fibers → decrease action potential → resting potential

2. An animal has a genetic mutation in the gene coding for rhodopsin and phtopsin. What would be the phenotypic outcome of this particular animal?

a. the animal will have normal vision

b. The animal will have normal vision during the day but lack of adaptation in dark conditions

c. The animal will have normal vision during the night but lack of vision in light conditions

d. The animal will have vision problems regardless of the light or dark conditions

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Explain how the sympathetic nervous system acts to directly regulate stroke volume. Include a detailed description of the mechanism (include the target cells, the proteins, signaling molecules, ions, and changes in membrane pontial where appropriate). What effect does this have on cardiac output. This will take about half a page to describe.

which Sexually Transmitted Infection poses the greatest risk to the American public

In a study women were identified who had been diagnosed with Cervical Cancer through the Cancer Registry. Women with skin cancer were used as controls. The study then received past medical histories on HPV status, which was collected through an outstanding health department. (And they somehow had access to these records and could link them.)
Calculation B
Cervical Cancer Cases   Controls (No Cervical Cancer)   Total
HPV 1200 9800 11,000
No HPV 400 7600 8,000
1,600 17,400 19,000

1. What type of study is this?
a. cross-sectional
b. case report/series
c. ecologic
d. case-control
e. cohort
f. clinical trial
g. community intervention

2. What is the most appropriate measure of association?
a. odd ratio
b. relative risk
c. Attributable risk
d. none of these

3. Calculate the measure of association (use two decimal places).

4. How would you best describe the relationship between the exposure and the outcome?
a. no relationship
b. positive relationship
c. negative relationship

5. If appropriate, calculate the attributable risk per 1000 people (use 2 decimal places).

I need to explain how the following would interfere with a patients gas exchange and give reason for each issue.

1. Iron deficiency that causes a decrease in red blood cells.

2. Cystic fibrosis that creates a thick heavy mucus that covers the alveolar surface.

3. A history of heavy smoking.

How does the renal and endocrine system play a role in getting tissues oxygenated? Or in other words, how does the renal and endocrine system help maintain homeostasis through the oxygenation of tissues? Consider how tissue oxygenation goes up or down and how each system makes/contributes to a change that helps maintain homeostasis.

Thanks in advance!

What are the histological features of the heart? What are the differences between elastic arteries, muscular arteries and capillaries?

List 5 specific features of the following cat bones: clavicle, ulna, pubis, femur, ilium, and humerus.