Describe the following types of angular movements and give examples: flexion, extension, hyperextension, lateral flexion, abduction, adduction, elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, circumduction, rotation, supination, pronation, lateral and medial excursion, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, inversion and eversion.

Neuroglia support and protect neurons. The central nervous system (CNS) has four (4) types of neuroglia. Correctly match each cell characteristic with the correct neuroglial cell.

Line the centre canal in spinal cord

Largest neuroglial cell

Can migrate to through neural tissue

Produce, monitor and circulate cerebrospinal fluid

Most abundant neuroglial cells

Maintain blood- brain barrier  

Many are ciliated

Many cytoplasmic processes with feet

Help to provide structural for framework CNS

Cell type includes ependyocytes and tanycytes

Smallest number of neuroglial cells

Forms cuboidal columnar epithelium

Lacking abasement membrane

Engulf cellular debris, waste products and pathogens

Contain many microfilaments

Adjust composition of interstitial fluid

Have some slender cytoplasmic extensions in contact with neuron surface

Small cell body

Forms membranous wrapping (myelin) around axon

Provides electrical insulation for axon

Maintain permeability characteristics of capillary endothelial cells

Phagocytes

Repair/ stabilise damaged neural tissue

Cytoplasmic processes each with very fine branches

Increases speed of action potential

Ependymal cells                 Astrocytes oligodendrocytes microglia       

Identify the stages of spermatogenesis in sequence from spermatogonia to spermatozoa. How do they differ in the number of chromosomes per cell (haploid/diploid)?

9). A patient complains to you about their blurred vision. Describe three (3) possible causes for this blurred vision with your patient.

10). Sequence the events that occur in the ear during hearing by describing the structures that sound waves will contact on their way into the body & name the lobe of the brain that eventually receives the message.

11). Name & describe the structure & function of the three (3) layers of the eye from outermost to innermost.

12). Define excitability, contractility, extensibility & elasticity. State why each of these properties is necessary for normal muscle function.

QUESTION 7

1. Aerobic training is associated with alterations in the:

   	A.	Size of the left atrium
   	B.	Size of the left ventricle
   	C.	Size of the right ventricle
   	D.	Thickness of ventricular walls

QUESTION 4

1. True or false? Moderate exercise boosts natural immune functions and host defenses for up to several hours.

   True

   False

16. You have had a drastic rapid change in pH; the protein buffer system has been activated and it:

1. uses the amine group (NH₂) as a weak base to bind H⁺ so as to raise the pH
2. can be regulated by the lungs and the kidneys
3. is an important buffer inside cells and in urine
4. uses HPO₄ to buffer strong acids
5. is the least abundant and powerful of the buffers

20. Which of the following structures do the renal calyces merge into /become?

1. Renal Hilus                                            c. Renal Pyramid
2. Renal Cortex                                         d. Renal Pelvis

Use your own words to explain why a typical form of epinephrine is applied with a swab locally to control bleeding during nasal surgery. Why is this route preferred and how does this drug work?

How would volume measurements change (pulmonary volume and capacity) if data were collected during vigorous exercise (TV, IRV, ERV, VC, RV) in comparison to collecting data at when at rest? Please provide reasonable quantitative estimates, rather than just a qualitative description.

endocrine function of the kidney

1. Brooke has been feeling ill lately and she goes to the emergency room. She has been vomiting excessively for 4 days and unable to hold down any food or water. Tests are run, and her arterial blood gas comes back as follows:

pH: 7.6

pCO₂: 55mmHg

HCO₃^-:  28mEq

Diagnose the acid base disturbance. How do you know (i.e. is pH alkaline or acidic, is pCO2 alkaline or acidic, is bicarb alkaline or acidic) (3 POINTS)? What is likely the cause of this imbalance, why? How would the respiratory system compensate for this imbalance (2 POINTS)? How would the urinary system compensate for this imbalance.

2. What is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)? How does the GFR relate to net filtration pressure? What are 2 physiological mechanisms that can change the GFR, briefly explain how they affect the GFR? Identify a hormone that will increase the GFR. Identify a hormone that will decrease the GFR .

1. Which of the following statements regarding uterine function is NOT correct?
   1. The cervical region of the uterus is the most likely site of successful implantation
   2. The myometrium contracts to expel the fetus during labor
   3. Mature sperm can actually survive in the female reproductive tract for several days
   4. The endometrium is the functional layer of zygote implantation

2. True or False:            Cryptorchidism, or failure of testes to descend out of the abdomen decreases male fertility & is a major risk factor for testicular cancer.
   1. True                                                                               b. False

3. Which structure of the male reproductive system is responsible for production of the majority of volume in semen/seminal fluid?
   1. The prostate                                                              c. The seminiferous tubules
   2. The seminal vesicles                                                d. The bulbourethral glands

4. In humans, separation of the cells at the post-fertilization stem cell only state, before differentiation of cells/tissue, may lead to the production of what?
   1. Identical twins                                                           c. A non-viable zygote
   2. Fraternal twins                                                          d. fetus from two different sperm cells

5. The hormone progesterone is responsible for which of the following changes in reproductive anatomy or physiology?
   1. Contraction of uterine muscles                          c. Secondary sex traits
   2. Myometrium growth                                              d. Maintenance of corpus luteum

6. Which of the following statements concerning the mammary glands is correct?
   1. Both sexes are equally prone to breast cancer
   2. A mobile, spongy, & painful breast lumps is worrisome for most breast cancers
   3. The area immediately surrounding the nipple/areola is most prone to cancer
   4. Mammary glands are a highly modified type of sweat gland

• • Tubular Secretion
    • Removes ____________ and ___________ ___________ from blood
• _________________ urethral sphincter: Smooth muscle; involuntary
• _________________ urethral sphincter: Skeletal muscle; voluntary
• Urinary _____________________: Lack of voluntary control over urination
• Urinary ________________: Failure to expel urine from the bladder to a normal degree
• Healthy urine typically contains _____________ ______________ when properly collected
• How do Kidneys help regulate blood pH?
  • __________________: Increases reabsorption of sodium by the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts, resulting in more water following sodium as it moves from filtrate to blood
    • Released in response to ________________ ________________ monitored by juxtaglomerular apparatus
  • ______________ _________________: Increases permeability to water of collecting ducts, resulting in more water moving from filtrate to blood

1. Discuss how gastrointestinal pathogens bypass the immune system within the GI-

2. What are enterotoxins and how do these differ from other bacterial toxins that we have discussed previously?

Individuals with diabetes mellitus have an increased risk for developing kidney disease due to accumulated damage to the nephrons. Based on our discussion of filtration, explain how an ACE inhibitor may prevent damage to the kidney individuals with diabetes. Explain how an ACE inhibitor works, what blood vessel(s) and any other structures that would be directly impacted by an ACE inhibitor, and how treatment with an ACE inhibitor could prevent damage to the nephrons.