Explain in detail the primary mechanism that determines urine concentration and how urine concentration is regulated (ok to ignore the role of aldosterone). Be sure to include: (1) a description of the mechanism that allows concentrated urine to be produced, including the structures involved, and the specific roles they have in the mechanism. (2) Describe the primary hormone that determines urine concentration, and the negative feedback system regulates its secretion (include all components). (3) Lastly, describe two scenarios, one when the hormone levels would be high, and one when the hormone levels would be low and explain how the system helps maintain homeostasis during these conditions. Discus each separately.

Discuss the function/s and structures of the Digestive body systems. Include in your essay at least 5 different structures that contribute to the functions you choose. Discuss the anatomy of the chosen structures and explain *HOW they contribute to the overall function.

Describe how glomerular filtration rate is regulated. Be sure to include both intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms, and explain how and when they operate.

Describe the mechanism for reabsorption of water, glucose and Na+ in the PCT.

Not Really an essay. Filtration is a relatively non-selective process. Make a list of the specific substances that pass through the filtration membrane. Make another list of the substances that do not. Are there any advantages for using a non-selective process in producing filtrate? Are there any disadvantages?

Gas Transport in the Blood. Efficient oxygen exchange requires the reversible binding of oxygen to hemoglobin. Describe the relationship between the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood and the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin. Include a labeled figure that clearly shows this relationship. Then, explain in detail the significance of the relationship by discussing what is seen in “average” body tissues and tissues that are metabolically active (name them). Then, explain in detail the significance of the relationship with respect to (modestly) high elevation. Lastly, describe in detail the additional factors that influence the loading and unloading of oxygen and explain their significance. Your explanations will need to include supporting evidence/facts/or conclusions. Be sure to explicitly state the significance in each case and support your statements. A significant number of points are awarded for doing so. For example for each section where you have to explain the significance try: “This is significant because…” then explain why it is important.

Gas Transport in the Blood. Describe in detail how carbon dioxide is transported in the blood. Be sure to include all the ways the blood transports carbon dioxide and a detailed explanation/description of how carbon dioxide is “loaded” and “unloaded” from the blood both in the tissues and the alveoli.

What measured in the aorta (branchial artery), blood pressure is represented by both systolic and diastoic values.

A. What is responsible for each of these pressures and how do these pressures change as blood moves through the arterial network at rest?

B.What changes in the vascular network occur to cause the observed changes in pressure?

C.Can these oberved changes in pressure ensure that blood returns back to the myocardium?

D. In turn, what changes do we observe in the aortic pressure during acute forms exercise?

E. With chronic forms of exercise?

1) Detail the complete reflex pathway involving parasympathetic signalling to the heart. Begin this at the carotid body baroreceptors.

( 2) Explain why the M2 subtype of muscarinic ACh receptors is found on the autorhythmic cells of the sinoatrial node and the M3 subtype is found on smooth muscle fibers of the bronchioles.

3) Skeletal muscle has a defined contraction period, causing the full contraction of every stimulated fiber. Part 1 - What determines the length of time during which the fiber contracts? Part 2 - What ends the contraction, so relaxation can begin? (not including the termination of the NMJ stimulation) Part 3 - Taking the previous two parts, and now adding in that the NMJ has stopped inducing depolarizations at the motor end plate, describe the events as the contraction cycle (each single twitch) ends. Part 4 - Taking the previous three parts, and now adding in that the NMJ continues to induce depolarizations at the motor end plate, explain the generation of increased muscle tension as summation occurs. 4) Using the following table for reference, explain each characteristic, especially noting the differences between fiber types within a given characteristic, and what that means to the fiber type. This of course requires you to relate the

describe how you would test the effects of noradrenaline produced from Locus Coeruleus on the plasticity of auditory cortex for a 22 kHz tone.

Explain the damage caused by the changes in the bronchi & bronchioles with chronic asthma.

B. Describe the response by the respiratory system, specifically alterations of the respiratory rate, to increased pH and decreased pH and how the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen vary with changes in pH.   

C. Using partial pressures, describe the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs and the tissues.

D. Discuss the effects of pH and temperature changes on the oxygen dissociation curve for hemoglobin.

How are visual inputs organized in the LGN and in V1? And how do the visual field of photoreceptors (dots of light) result in the edges/lines for the visual cortex?

A. Describe parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons, taking into account the relative lengths of the fibers, neurotransmitters involved, and receptors that are present at the pre-post ganglionic junctions and postganglionic-target organ junctions (this does NOT include discussion of how the nerves exit the spinal cord).  

B. Name 5 effects of the flight-or-flight response and 5 effects that target DIFFERENT components than those named for the sympathetic effects of the rest-and-digest response.

A. Fully describe how erythroblastosis fetalis can be manifested.