Answer the Questions in regards to Botany;

How did Darwin’s observations and readings lead him to discover the theory of evolution by natural selection?

Describe the five conditions of a population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

Describe the following agents of change that cause deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: mutations, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection.

Describe evidence for evolution.

Explain how the rate of glucose transport across cell membranes can be altered without a change in the external glucose concentration at which V1/2 and Vmax are measured. Explain what cellular changes can alter the external glucose concentration at which V1/2 is measured

Describe the chemical composition of each structures below. (Note that the chemical composition for many of the structures listed is a phospholipid bilayer.)

cell wall

chromatin

cytosol-

chloroplasts

chromoplasts

cytoskeleton

Golgi apparatus

leucoplasts

mitochondria

nuclear envelope

plasma membrane

peroxisomes

ribosomes

rough endoplasmic reticulum

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

tonoplast

PLEASE ANSWER ALL PARTS FULLY!

How did the Meselson & Stahl’s experiment allow the investigators to distinguish between the 3 overall methods of DNA replication? What approaches were used in investigating the enzymology of DNA replication, remembering that studying an essential function presents a particular challenge?

Your lab is studying gene expression of the tryptophan operon in the bacterium E. coli. In order to facilitate this study, you have cloned the Trp-operon, excised the five coding genes (TrpA, B, C, D, and E), and replaced them with a copy of the reporter gene GFP (green fluorescent protein). The resulting recombinant DNA was inserted into an F' plasmid, and used to transform a number of different strains of E. coli. For each of the scenarios listed below, predict what the bacterial colonies would look like, and explain why you would obtain these results.

a. A "wild type" strain of E. coli, transformed by the F' Trp/GFP reporter plasmid, is plated out on a selective medium lacking tryptophan.

b. A "wild type" strain of E. coli, transformed by the F' Trp/GFP reporter plasmid, is plated out on tryptic soy medium.

c. A trpR mutant strain of E. coli, transformed by the F' Trp/GFP reporter plasmid, is plated out on tryptic soy medium.

You discover a mutant yeast strain that cannot grow when provided with pyruvate as its sole carbohydrate, although it grows normally when given glucose as a carbon energy source; you call this the Pyr– trait. Wild-type yeast can grow well using either carbon source; you designate this the Pyr+ trait. You suspect that the mutant yeast have defective mitochondria.

A. Why is mitochondrial function critical for growing on pyruvate?

B. You want to determine whether the mutation responsible for the Pyr– trait is carried in the nuclear or mitochondrial genome. Your experiment is to mate Pyr– haploid cells to Pyr+ haploid cells and examine segregation of the trait in the progeny. After mating, the Pyr-/Pyr+ diploid cells can grow on pyruvate (Pyr+). You send these diploid cells through meiosis and examine the four haploid cells generated from a single diploid cell. If the mutation is in mitochrondrial DNA, will the four haploid cells probably be all Pyr–, all Pyr+, or a combination? What if the mutation is in nuclear DNA?

what would happen to the charge across the cell membrane outside cell potassium concentrations are greatly increased by KCL injection into the blood

In a population where skin color gene can be determined by 4 alleles B(black)=0.412561 o(olive) = 0.312450 y(yellow) = 0.112689 w(white) =0.123540. The gene for skin type can be determined by 3 alleles N(normal)=0.425789 d(dry)= 0.345689 x(oily)=0.214130. The gene for skin elasticity can be determined by 2 alleles E(elastic)= 0.456820 and e(non-elastic)= 500123. Assume Hardy-Weinberg equlibrium, what is the frequency of getting yellow, normal, elastic skin? (p² + 2pq + q² + 2pr + 2qr + r² = 1). ?

Describe an example of where fossils have been used to reconstruct the behavior of extinct animals.

Describe a scenario where selection occurs on a trait, but there is no evolutionary change.

Consider a comparison of two cladistic analyses aimed at reconstructing the phylogeny of a particular set of mammalian species. One of these studies used Y-chromosome sequences and the other used mtDNA sequences, and both studies successfully avoided the problems associated with homoplasy. Explain why the species trees estimated by these studies would likely be very similar, despite the fact that these data sets were generated by lineage histories that do not contain ANY individuals in common (Y-chromosomes evolve thru males only, while mtDNA evolves thru females only)?

Given the warming climate, you are interested in how seed production of a certain plant species if affected by temperature. In particular, you are interested in whether seed production shows a plastic response to temperature, and, if so, whether there is the possibility for adaptive evolution of phenotypic plasticity in response to climate change. Please describe the steps that would be needed to demonstrate there is the capacity for adaptive evolution in the population you are studying.

In 2002, Trask et al. published a study showing that a high frequency of HIV transmissions in Lusaka, Zambia occurred between marriage partners. Specifically, they studied a cohort of married couples where, at the beginning of the study, one partner was infected and the other was not. Later, the uninfected partner became infected. If you were doing this study, how could you use phylogenetic methods to determine whether the newly infected individual was likely infected by his/her partner? Briefly describe your study design and results that would support and results that would refute (you can use drawings if you wish) the partner-partner transmission scenario.