Identify and provide a function of the structural components of a bone.

Explain the steps of hemostasis and the coagulation cascade

Carbohydrate digestion begins when the complex carbohydrate starch is broken down into maltose. Which enzymes catalyze the breakdown of maltose into monosaccharides, and where are the enzymes found?

a)Carbohydrases located throughout the intestines

b)Pancreatic amylase released by the pancreas

c)GLUT2 located on the basolateral surface

d)Disaccharidases located at the intestinal brush border

Size of cord segments:

1. The more superior, the more white matter. why is this?

2. grey matter is larger in cervical and lumbar regions. why is this?

Mrs. Smith was diagnosed with Stage IV breast cancer 15 months ago. She underwent
chemotherapy for several months before a bilateral mastectomy was performed. She then
completed six weeks of radiation therapy to the chest wall. Recently, she has been experiencing
the inability to manipulate the tongue during chewing and swallowing, as well as difficulty in
speech. Further investigation indicated that the left side of her tongue appeared to be paralyzed
when asked to protrude her tongue past her lips. An MRI was performed and revealed a lesion
present at the base of the skull that was affecting this particular cranial nerve.

question:

5.   Based upon your knowledge of the action of the nerve in Case Study 5, describe how proper functioning of this nerve is necessary for vocalization, food manipulation and swallowing.

There are 5 parts to the question.

Patient Medical History

Georgia is a 32 year old woman who has been suffering from recurrent (sometimes severe) headaches, and periods of fatigue since late childhood (~10-11 years of age). In her early twenties (21 years of age) she was diagnosed with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and began to experience periods of unexplained abdominal pain.

Georgia’s symptoms have waxed and waned over times, sometimes she feels fine but other times (since ~10-11 years of age) the headaches, fatigue and abdominal pain (since ~21 years of age) seem overwhelming. Lately the fatigue and abdominal pains have been particularly bad.

Georgia is afraid to eat because she does not know when the abdominal pain will strike or what is causing it. She has begun to lose weight but her food restriction has not addressed the pain. Regardless of whether she has eaten a large or small meal, and regardless of ingredients the pain can occur.

Georgia’s doctor performed several tests and noticed symptoms of inflammation in some areas of the intestine, after ruling out other conditions her doctor has suggested Georgia may have Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD). However, IBD would not explain why Georgia sometimes experiences upper abdominal pain or why the location of the pain seems to move around different areas of the abdomen.

Georgia feels tired all of the time; the amount of sleep she gets does not seem to lessen the fatigue. She finds mornings especially difficult but fatigue is present throughout the day. She finds it difficult to concentrate and her performance at work has begun to suffer. She sometimes feels too tired to climb the stairs to her second floor apartment.Her doctor sent her to a sleep clinic but an overnight sleep observation study did not find anything abnormal.

While Georgia is most concerned with the abdominal pain and fatigue she has other symptoms as well.

Georgia's Symptoms

• Mild cognitive dysfunction (“brain fog”)
• Dermatographism
• Inflammation and pain in several joints (hips, knees, elbows, hands/fingers) and lower back pain
• Occasional flushing (noticeably red face and sometimes other areas of the skin with no cause; different from blushing which is usually milder and caused by emotions such as embarrassment)
• Occasional diaphoresis (excessive sweating for no apparent reason usually across the whole body or multiple areas of the body)
• Occasional mild dyspnea (shortness of breath; feeling like you can’t get enough air)

Georgia’s doctor has consulted some colleagues who recommended a full blood work up and tests to measure the levels of some key immune response molecules.

Georgia's Test Results

• Mild and transient leukocytosis (transient = in blood drawn at some times but not others)
• Mild and transient elevated serum total tryptase level (transient = in blood drawn at some times but not others)
• Elevated urinary histamine metabolites and urinary levels of PGD2 (prostaglandin D2)

1. How might an immune response contribute to abdominal pain?

2. What common immune response involves all of the markers elevated in Georgia’s tests: tryptase, histamine and prostaglandin D2 (1 mark)?

After reviewing her tests Georgia’s doctor concludes she has Mast Cell Activation Syndrome (MCAS), a disease characterized by chronic multi-system inflammation. Her doctor rules out mastocytocis (accumulation of mast cells).

Basically Georgia’s mast cell responses are too strong which could be because she has too many mast cells, her mast cells are hyperactive or both. Since her doctor has ruled out mastocytosis there are not an abnormal number of mast cells.

We initially looked at white blood cells commonly found in circulation and therefore when it came to granulocytes focused on basophils, eosinophils and neutrophils. Mast cells are also granulocytes but are found in tissues.

We initially looked at white blood cells commonly found in circulation and therefore when it came to granulocytes focused on basophils, eosinophils and neutrophils. Mast cells are also granulocytes but are found in tissues.

3. What do granulocytes all have in common both in structure and in immune response roles ?

4. Describe the link between aberrant (too strong) mast cell responses and chronic multi-system inflammation .

In other words, how does it “make sense” – if you tell an immunologist that a chronic multi-system inflammatory disorder is caused by overactive mast cells that explanation “makes sense”, why? (Don’t forget there are three words – chronic, multi-system, inflammation)

Dermatographism

Let’s revisit the dermatographism now that you know more about Georgia’s condition.

Dermatographism is sometimes referred to as “skin writing disease”. In people with dermatographia/dermatographism non-pathogenic stimuli like mild scratching can cause localized hives to quickly and transiently (temporarily) form at the site of the stimulation.

The immune responses that cause the “writing” are not triggered by pathogens but by simple pressure/scratching (sometimes heat or other non-pathogenic stimuli too). However, the underlying reactions are similar to the immune responses you’d see if a foreign particle was introduced under the skin.

This is also true for conditions like MCAS. For example Georgia’s mast cells are over-reacting to a scratch on her skin but they are still releasing all the same signalling molecules and causing a similar reaction to ‘normal’ mast cell responses (i.e., they might be reacting more strongly, and responding to things that aren’t dangerous but they aren’t acting radically different).

One of Georgia's symptoms was dermatographism.

5. Using what you know of the immune response and knowing Georgia's diagnosis (MCAS) describe how her skin “writing” is occurring. Assume that while the trigger for the response is pressure on the skin (a scratch) the response itself is “normal” (i.e., similar to what you’d see if a foreign organism was under the skin; 5 marks). Make sure to relate the symptoms (what we're seeing in dermatographism) to the immune response underlying them.

Some symptoms of MCAS occur after an easily identifiable trigger/triggering event and some seem to appear randomly. Whether triggers can be identified (and therefore modified/avoided) depends on the symptom and/or patient. Even those symptoms that appear “random” can still be due to a triggering event but triggers can be variable and not always easy to identify.

For example, Georgia only notices the symptoms of dermatographism when pressure is applied to her skin (like a scratch or wearing clothing that is too tight). She has begun to wear looser clothing and is less likely to scratch at minor skin irritations. However her stomach pains seem to be random and nothing she eats or doesn’t eat impacts the presence or level of pain.

Depending on the type and severity of symptoms, and how they impact a patient’s quality of life there are different treatment options. Usually trying to identify and avoid triggers of mast cell responses, when possible, is the first step. Why might avoidance of triggers be the first step instead of trying to modify the mast cell responses (i.e., “fix” the mast cells; stop them from overacting)? (Hint: this is a general question, no particular pathways necessary; tie your answer into what you know of the immune responses in general)

Like many patients, Georgia could identify triggers for some of her symptoms and not others. Georgia’s doctor prescribed an H1 and H2 antihistamine, as well as cromoglicic acid to help lower the overactivity of her mast cells. Georgia was also given a proton-pump inhibitor to help with the stomach pain and GERD, and told to take acetaminophen for more general pain. She was put on a brief course of prednisone to decrease gastrointestinal inflammation but is now off the prednisone.

Georgia is feeling better and while her symptoms are not gone she now has less acute episodes.

Where are fat reserves in the body, and how much can be stored? Please elaborate for my understanding!

Donald is a 62-year-old male who has been experiencing frequent urination and trouble starting to urinate for several weeks. He has a family history of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Donald’s BMI is 29, he occasionally drinks alcohol and coffee, and his diet consists mainly of red meat, starches, and dairy products. Just yesterday, he had an episode of incontinence and decided to seek care immediately. Donald was referred to an urologist who suspected that his prostate was the cause of his urinary issues.

1. Briefly explain how Donald’s prostate could be related to his inability to urinate normally.

2. Explain what a prostate-specific antigen test is and how it could be helpful for Donald.

3. “Watchful waiting” is a treatment approach commonly used in cases involving the prostate. Explain what this means and why it is used.

I need new and unique answers, please. (Use your own words, don't copy and paste), Please Use your keyboard (Don't use handwriting) Thank you..

BIOL 102

Choose any system of the human body and prepare a response to the following questions in 1-2 pages:
1. Introduction (Explain the system with the components)
2. Body (Explain how the system relates to achieve homeostasis in human body)
3. Conclusion (Choose any disease common in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and explain how and which part of the system is affected)

________

please complete my answer to be 500 words And I need new and unique answers, please. (Use your own words, don't copy and paste)

A:

1.The cardiovascular system also called circumlocutory system or blood vascular system. This system responsible for transporting gases, nutrients, hormones, and cellular waste products throughout the body. The cardiovascular system consists of three interrelated components : blood, heart and blood vessels.

Blood: Blood is a liquid connective tissue composed of blood plasma and formed elements( blood cells). The main function of the blood is transporting gases, nutrients, hormones, etc. Blood have three types of blood cell - RBC, WBC and platelets.

Heart: Heart is a mesodermally derived muscular pumping organ. Heart has four chamber right and left atria, right and left ventricles.

Blood vessels: The cardiovascular system has three types of blood vessels. These are the arteries, which carry blood away from the heart to other organs. The capillaries, which permit the exchange of substance between the blood and body tissues. And the veins, which return blood from the tissues back to the heart.

2. In order to maintain the homeostasis in the cardiovascular system and provided adequate blood to the tissue, blood flow must be redirected continually to the tissue as they become more active. Three homeostatic mechanisms ensure adequate blood flow, blood pressure and distribution are neural, endocrine and autoregulatory mechanism.

3. Coronary artery disease is common health problem in Saudi Arabia. Coronary artery disease is also called coronary heart disease, that causes narrowing of coronary arteries so that blood flow to the heart is reduced. In this disease affects the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. It is made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium and other substance found in the blood.   

5. What is Sarin and how does it affect our nervous and muscular system? Why would it be causing these symptoms? Please answer in detail, some key areas of interest below.

   1. Sodium ions

   2. Sodium ion channels

   3. Calcium ions

   4. Sarcoplasmic reticulum

   5. Actin

   6. Myosin

   7. Troponin

   8. Synapse

   9. Neurotransmitters

   10. Membrane potential

   11. T-tubules

   12. ATP

   13. Pre-synaptic neuron(s)

   14. Post-synaptic muscle fiber

Symptoms:

Dizzines, increase HR, SOB, muscle cramps, unconciousness.

2.Describe the pathway of auditory nerve signals from the auditory nerve to primary auditory cortex.

3. Describe both conductive and sensorineural hearing loss and why they occur. Can they be treated?

Case Scenario: A patient was referred to the clinic with multiple symptoms. As the doctor is reviewing his history, he sees that this patient is homeless and lives in a shelter. The patient reports he finds food wherever he can, so his diet is varied, but generally lacks nutrition. Upon assessment, the doctor finds a hard lump in the patient’s abdomen.

1. Question: Describe the impact nutrition has on the cell cycle. Include specific data, facts, examples, and key terminology drawn from the textbook and at least one other supplemental source in your response.

Individuals with diabetes, if not controlled, can develop ketoacidosis. Based on what you now know about acid-base balance, what causes ketoacidosis and what treatment is necessary to prevent damage or death