What is the defecation reflex and what stimulates it?

Match the numbers below with the correct answer on the drop down menu. On answer can be used more than once or not at all.

1. Stimulates liver for overall growth.
2. Inactive enzyme released by the liver for RAAS.
3.Zona of suprarenal glands where glucocorticoids are secreted.
4. Main hormones secreted by the zona fasciculata of suprarenal glands.
5. Released from suprarenal cortex and key player in RAAS.
6.Stimulates production of testosterone in males and post ovulation phase in ovaries.
7.Stimulates production of triiodothyronine and thyroxine.
8.Stimulates release of aldosterone in RAAS.

9. Directly innervated for fast release of stress hormones.

10. Increases/opens up aquaporins in kidneys .

11.Converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II.

Oxytocin

angiotensin I

antidiuretic hormone

thyroid-stimulating hormone

angiotensin II

zona fasciculata

follicle-stimulating hormone

angiotensinogen

glucocorticoids

angiotensin-converting enzyme

suprarenal medulla

growth hormone

aldosterone

What is a landmark for metacarpals? What is a landmark for phalanges? What is a landmark for tarsals?

What is the developmental defect associated with Thalidomide? What was it prescribed for? What is the molecular mechanism?

What effects does a developing fetus have on the female body? How does this relate to the growth of the fetus?

If the unknown sample was tested to have above normal levels of bilirubin (it tested to have high bilirubin levels), what other biochemistry tests should be performed? Justify your answers.

Sensory Systems

General Sensory

1. Stimuli in the environment are detected by ___________. _________ detect stimuli in the outside environment while ________ detect internal stimuli. ________ detect chemicals; ________ detect pressure; ________ detect photons; _________detect changes in shape; ________ detect changes in muscle length
2. Receptors can only detect stimuli that is presented in the ___________. Smaller/larger receptive field allow for better precision. Receptors generate ___________ which triggers __________ in sensory neurons. Sensory neurons relay information to the _________ then to the __________ where stimuli is perceived.

Taste

1. Taste receptors are ___________; they are located in _________. ________ trigger salty taste; ________ trigger sweet taste; ________ trigger bitter taste; _______ trigger umami taste; ______ trigger sour taste.
2. _________ and _______ chemicals directly enter taste cells to depolarize them. __________ chemicals bind to receptors which activate second messenger system.
3. Taste cells activate neuron is CN _________ which relay the information to the __________ and then to __________ then finally to the _________ where taste is perceived.

Smell

1. Olfactory receptors are located _____________. Binding of odorants to olfactory receptors activates _________ which activates ___________ enzyme which converts __________ to ________. cAMP opens ________ to _______ the olfactory neuron. The olfactory neurons synapse in the _________ and then to the _________ where odor is perceived.

Vision

1. __________ photoreceptors are used for bright light conditions and for seeing _______. ________ photoreceptors are used form dim light conditions. There are ______types of cones. Blue cones respond best to light of _____; Red cones respond best to light of ________; and green cones respond best to light of _________. Rods respond best to light of _______.
2. The part of the photoreceptor that responds to light is the __________ which is made of ________ and ________.
3. In the dark, cGMP opens _________ on the photoreceptors which allows ______ to enter. This is called the __________ which depolarizes the ________ which releases ________ to inhibit bipolar cells. As a result, bipolar cells can’t activate __________. As a result, no _________ is generated in the optic nerve.
4. In the light, photons of light strike to photopigments to convert ________ to _______. This change activates _________ which activates __________ which converts cGMP to ________. A decrease in cGMP decreases the _________ current. As a result, bipolar cells are no longer inhibited by _______. Bipolar cells then stimulate _________ which generate action potentials in the ________.
5. The scotopic system uses many _________ to activate fewer ________ which activate fewer _________. This is an example of __________. This system uses _________ to respond to low intensity light
6. The photopic system uses __________ to activate __________ to activate __________. Due to the lack of __________, this system is not suitable for __________ but it is ideal for _________.
7. Visual pathway
   1. Bipolar cells synapse with _______ in the retina which, in turn, synapse in the ________; third order neurons then terminate in the _________ where vision is perceived.
8. Vision abnormalities
   1. _________ is also called nearsightedness; in this condition image comes into focus _________
   2. _________ is also called farsightedness; in this condition, image comes into focus ________
   3. _________ is condition that prevents the image from coming into focus
   4. _________ is normal vision

Hearing

1. The pitch of a sound is based on its ________. The loudness of sound is based on its ________. Loudness is measure using a _________ scale. 20 db is ________ times louder than the hearing threshold.
2. The receptor for hearing is the _________ which is located in the _________. The receptor has ______ and _______ hair cells. The __________ are responsible for hearing and the _______ are responsible for cochlear tuning.
3. The ________ are activated when their stereocilia __________ and are inhibited when the stereocilia __________. Bending of the stereocilia towards the _______open ________ to allow _______ to enter the cells. This causes depolarization of the _______ which activates ________.
4. Pathway
   1. Auditory nerve synapse in the _________ and activate secondary neurons which project to the ________ to activate tertiary neurons which project to the ________ to activate quarternary neurons which project to the _________ to activate 5^th order neurons that terminate in the _______ where hearing is perceived.  
5. Hearing loss
   1. Damage to the ________ leads to sensorineural hearing loss whereas obstruction or damage to the ________ may lead to conduction hearing loss.

Equilbrium

1. _____________ detect angular movements of the head; the _________ detects vertical movements of the head; the ________ detects horizontal movements of the head.
2. The equilibrium structures (apparatus) contain ________ which are depolarized when _________. These cells then activate __________ which terminate in the _________. Neurons then project to the _________ and then to the ________.