Describe the events that take place when the action potential spreads throughout the axon terminal leading up to the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

What would happen to the current if you remove Ca^2+ from the extracellular space? What would happen if you gradually increase the [Ca^2+] back to the physiological level?

A 32-year-old male repeat blood donor is found to be positive for HIV through nucleic acid testing, but he has been test-negative for HIV ½ antibodies and for HIV p24 antigen on several prior donations. Before all testing is completed, he returns to the blood collection center to donate HLA-matched platelets. At registration, the staff person notices that his prior record indicates his deferral status. She informs the donor that he is not eligible to donate the platelets. The donor is shocked and embarrassed by the news and storms out of the center. Two weeks later, the donor sues the blood center for intentional infliction of emotional stress.

Is the donor likely to be successful?

Explain how the hypothesis below came up/was developed based on the initial observations (see below).

Hypothesis: The recombinant-based assay for HCV will detect HCV antibodies in blood samples of people with hepatitis C or who are carriers of HCV, but not in non-HCV individuals.

Initial Observations:

I. Hepatitis is a general category of liver diseases. Several different viral agents have been found to infect the liver and cause inflammation and damage.

II. In the 1940s, researchers identified two forms of viral hepatitis. Infectious hepatitis, or hepatitis A, is transmitted by contact with feces from infected individuals. Serum hepatitis, or hepatitis B, is transmitted through the blood and other body fluids. The hepatitis B virus was isolated in the 1960s and the hepatitis A virus was isolated in the 1970s.

III. Following the isolation of these two viruses, assays were developed in order to identify individuals infected with hepatitis A or hepatitis B viruses.

IV. A form of hepatitis occurs in patients that test negative for hepatitis A or B. This form of hepatitis, initially called non-A, non-B hepatitis (NANBH) but now referred to as hepatitis C, represented greater than 90% of transfusion-associated hepatitis.

V. Hepatitis C causes chronic disease which can lead to cirrhosis of the liver and liver cancer.

VI. A recombinant-based assay for the hepatitis C virus (HCV) has been developed, using RNA isolated from the hepatitis C virus.

A. Explain and describe the key differences between these two sets of experiments (see below):

B. Also explain the the significance of having two experiments as opposed to one experiment.

C. Identify the independent and dependent variable for these experiments.

Sets of Experiments I: HCV Status Experiments

In the first set of experiments, examine the blood samples of individuals with known HCV status. There are three groups of individuals in this experimental set: (1) individuals with chronic hepatitis C (this includes patients known to have chronic hepatitis C or blood donors who are known to have passed HCV onto recipients); (2) individuals with acute hepatitis C infections or blood donors who may have passed HCV onto recipients; (3) a control group of individuals, including normal blood donors (long time blood donors with no history of passing HCV onto recipients) or patients with hepatitis caused by alcohol or primary biliary cirrhosis. Repeat the assay four times per sample to assure consistency.

Sets of Experiments II: Blood Transfusion Recipients Experiments

In the second set of experiments, examine the blood of transfusion recipients known to have received blood from HCV positive donors. Assay the positive donors to determine the levels of HCV antibodies in their blood. Assay the recipients' blood every three months for twelve months in order to determine if HCV antibody levels increase or remain stable. As a control, assay recipients of blood transfusion from blood donors who were negative according to the HCV antibody assay. Assay the recipients of these negative donors every three months for twelve months.

Explain and describe the key differences between these two sets of experiments:

Sets of Experiments I: HCV Status Experiments

In the first set of experiments, examine the blood samples of individuals with known HCV status. There are three groups of individuals in this experimental set: (1) individuals with chronic hepatitis C (this includes patients known to have chronic hepatitis C or blood donors who are known to have passed HCV onto recipients); (2) individuals with acute hepatitis C infections or blood donors who may have passed HCV onto recipients; (3) a control group of individuals, including normal blood donors (long time blood donors with no history of passing HCV onto recipients) or patients with hepatitis caused by alcohol or primary biliary cirrhosis. Repeat the assay four times per sample to assure consistency.

Sets of Experiments II: Blood Transfusion Recipients Experiments

In the second set of experiments, examine the blood of transfusion recipients known to have received blood from HCV positive donors. Assay the positive donors to determine the levels of HCV antibodies in their blood. Assay the recipients' blood every three months for twelve months in order to determine if HCV antibody levels increase or remain stable. As a control, assay recipients of blood transfusion from blood donors who were negative according to the HCV antibody assay. Assay the recipients of these negative donors every three months for twelve months.

Explain the difference between an experiment for the specificity of the recombinant-based assay for HCV (Hepatitis C Virus) and an experiment for the sensitivity of the recombinant-based assay for HCV.

In addition, what is the significance of having these two experiments as opposed to only one experiment.

Carbohydrates can serve as energy for the brain, storing energy for the muscles, and digestive aids. However, unlike proteins, carbohydrates continue to be perceived as “bad food” in the diet. Individuals may go to great length to “avoid” carbohydrates but eat a “healthy diet.”
While some consumers may take a more moderate approach and use replacement or substitute sweeteners (alternative sweeteners) to replace sucrose, use of a variety of foods should be the preferred route to a healthy diet. Discuss the fallacies in thinking that alternative sweeteners can replace sugar and discuss the role of alternative sweeteners in a dietary plan for a healthy adult.

In the following scenario, what advice would you recommend to the individuals and why?
You are visiting overnight with family relatives that you have not seen for some time. The mother of the family (your distant aunt) is quite overweight and the two children, 12 y/o and 16 y/o, are “heavy” but you would not classify them as obese. The father of the family recently had a heart attack and while in the hospital was put on a low-fat diet. He is not overweight by observation.
Your aunt is trying to follow the diet “faithfully” for her husband and believes that having everyone in the household follow the diet would be best (children included). The diet includes lean meats and low-fat dairy products. Your aunt decided that the family should also cut out carbohydrates as well given that “they can cause you to become fat” and is making sure that everyone is consuming plenty of liquids to wash away the plaque in the arteries.
What do you think of this diet and what recommendations would you give to your aunt and her family?

Question 10

1. Which of the following is NOT a function of epithelial tissue?

   		detection of a sensation
   		often binds other tissues together
   		protects underlying tissue
   		absorption of substances

Question 14

1. Which of the following is NOT a function of the trachea?

   		provide a pathway for air to enter the lungs.
   		provide a pathway for air to exit the lungs
   		trap dust and debris to prevent it from entering the lungs.
   		prevent food from entering the lungs

Question 16

1. Which of these is NOT typically found at a synapse?

   		a synaptic cleft
   		neurotransmitter receptors
   		glial cells
   		synaptic vesicles

Question 18

1. Targets of the autonomic nervous system include all of the following except:

   		cardiac muscle
   		blood vessels
   		endocrine glands
   		skeletal muscles

Question 25

1. Which of the following hormones is not considered a stress hormone?

   		epinephrine
   		cortisol
   		norepinephrine
   		insulin

Question 29

1. Your physician tells you that you have an excess amount of glucose in your urine. What could this be a symptom of?

   		heart disease
   		eating too much sugar
   		type II diabetes
   		lactose intolerance

a women spent a week on a cruise ship with periodic feeling of vertigo, but she successfully treated her initial nausea with drugs for motion sickness. A week after she disembarked, her feeling of vertigo returned. HOwever, this time it seemed like the room was spinning and she now had tinnitus.

1. Which organs of the vestibular apparatus would be activated by movements of the ship at sea? what role does vision play in vertigo caused by this movement? explain

2. what might cause the nausea of seasickness, and how does medication help to relieve this nause?

3. What is tinnitus, and how might it be produced when a person has vertigo?

17). Describe the stages of endochondral ossification and name at least one (1) bone that is formed using this process.

18). What effect does the hormone calcitonin have on blood calcium levels & how does it produce this effect? Explain.

19). What effect does parathyroid hormone have on blood calcium levels & how does it produce this effect? Explain.

20). How is vitamin D synthesized and what effect does vitamin D have on blood calcium concentrations? Explain.

compare and contrast spongy and compact bone. how does their structure correlate with their function.