Explain how leak channels and gated channels differ.

Discuss the role of calcium ions in the transmission of an action potential at the synapse.

Define continuous propagation and saltatory propagation

Identify and describe the three spinal meninges.

Graded potentials

please type it

V = (ΔPπr4)/8nL

indicate how application of the equation to pulmonary air flow differs from blood flow through arterioles

Why is a CNS neuron not usually replaced after it is injured?

Classify neurons according to their function?

_______ account for roughly half of the volume of the nervous system.

Many medications introduced into the bloodstream cannot directly affect the neurons of the CNS because:

identify the neuroglia of the peripheral nervous system.

Using the equation for liquid accumulation {(liquid accumulation = K [(Pc – Pi) – (Πpl - Πi)]-Q_lymph}, explain changing components in the equation can increase in interstitial volume and how edema ‘safety’ factors limit these increases.

Which of the following are lacking fully formed smooth muscle layers in the tunica medulla?

A) capillaries and small venules

b) capillaries and arterioles

c) capillaries and veins

d) venules and veins

1. When an individual receives antibodies that were produced by another person, or animal, providing short lived or temporary immunity, that is referred as:

1. active immunity
2. humoral immunity
3. immunosuppression
4. passive acquired immunity
5. immunocompetence

2.  A method to artificially induce an immune response to an infectious disease is:

1. immunity
2. resistance
3. antitoxin
4. vaccination
5. conjugation

3. It is sometimes difficult to produce an immunization against certain pathogens because   they frequently change their molecular protein coat.  This is called:

1. protective antibodies
2. antigenic variation
3. attenuation
4. hypergammaglobulinemia
5. artificial active acquired immunity

4. Which group is responsible for T or B cell activation, fever, and macrophage activation?

1. Interferons
2. Interleukins
3. Colony stimulating factors
4. Tumor necrosis factor
5. Cell adhesion molecules

5. The Clonal Selection theory postulates that:

a. lymphocytes bear a single receptor with unique specificity
b. receptor binding with high affinity leads to lymphocyte activation
c. activated lymphocytes have receptors that bear identical specificity as
      their parent lymphocytes
d. lymphocytes with receptors for ubiquitous self molecules are
      eliminated in early cell development
e. all of the above

6. Which of the following statements about Macrophages is not true?

1. they engulf foreign pathogens via phagocytosis
2. they are involved in Antigen presentation
3. they begin as immature monocytes
4. they are involved in the allergic response

e.    they function as important scavenger cells

7.. Which is not a characteristic of the inflammatory response?

a.     delivery of additional effector molecules to the infection site                                                        

   b.     inducing local blood clotting                                                                                           

    c.     processing and presenting foreign antigen peptide fragments                                   

     d.     promoting the repair of damaged tissue                                                                        

     e.     all of the above are characteristics of inflammation

35. What do calcium levels have to do with osteoporosis? Describe two things one can do to help prevent osteoporosis.

36. How many pairs of chromosomes to humans have? Which number chromosome determines the sex of the fetus? Explain.

37. In which cells does meiosis occur?

38. What becomes of the embryonic Mullerian ducts in females? In males?

39. What becomes of the embryonic Wolffian ducts in females? In males?

1. What is the purpose of HCl secretions? What cells secrete HCl in the stomach?

2. Explain how H+ is secreted into the stomach. Fig. 21.9. If bicarbonate (HCO3-) were not transported out of the cell, would there be more or less H+ available to secrete?

3. List three hormones that are involved in the digestive process and describe what they do.

4. Which of the four basic processes occur in the small intestine? Why are the villi and microvilli important?

5. Which of the four basic processes occur in the large intestine?

1. Name two Primary Central Organs of the Immune System:
2. Name two Secondary Peripheral Organs of the Immune System:
3. Cells that break down foreign proteins, process them, and express peptide fragments on their membrane are called: _____________________________________________.
4. Local inflammation and phagocytosis of bacteria leads to activation of a complex series of proteolytic reactions and plasma proteins called:______________________________.
5. The region where the lymphocyte receptor binds the foreign antigen is known as the: _______________________________________________________________________.

For each of these 3 channels, describe where they are found, how they work, and the role they play in physiology: 1) the cardiac ryanodine channel, 2) the voltage gated calcium channel on neurons, and 3) the dihydropyridine ryanodine channel

In the first and second trimester of pregnancy the uterus is relatively unresponsive to oxytocin but during the last weeks of pregnancy becomes increasingly responsive (meaning it will cause contractions). With your understanding of how cells respond to hormones, explain why this is the case. You must include in general how the cells change as well as the specific hormone(s) that trigger the change.

Using bullet-point sentences, describe EVERY SINGLE action from the action potential moving down a motor neuron, to the synapse, and then all the way to contraction of the skeletal muscle cell.

16 years old male patient who has had bleeding gums & skin rash over last few days, he asked medical advice & here are his laboratory results: HB: 12 g/dl WBCs: 6000 PLT: 40000 Bleeding time: 12 min INR:1.1 PTT: 35 second Which of the following is the most probable diagnosis: Select one: a. Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpra (ITP) b. None of the above c. Hemophilia A d. Von Willebrand disease