A ballplayer catches a ball 3.2 s after throwing it vertically upward. With what speed did he throw it? What height did it reach?

The molar solubility of PbCl2 in 0.20 M Pb(NO3)2 solution is:
(a) 1.7 x 10-4 M
(b) 9.2 x 10-3 M
(c) 1.7 x 10-5 M
(d) 4.6 x 10-3 M
(e) 8.5 x 10-5 M

Please show all work

The population mean income of US residents is $50,000 with a standard deviation of $20,000. Suppose that we sample 300 US residents and calculate the sample mean.

a) What distribution does the sample mean follow? WHY? Write using proper notation.

b) Find the probability that the mean of our sample is less than $49,000

c) Suppose we sample 3,000 US residents instead. Find the probability that the mean of the sample is less than $49,000. Explain why this probability is smaller.

Read the following and answer the questions.

INTRODUCTION

Oral cavity is an open growth system with an uninterrupted introduction and removal of microbes and their nutrients. It offers diverse habitats where-in different species of micro-organisms can prosper. The primary requisite for any group of microbes to flourish in a niche is their ability to adhere to the tooth surfaces and multiply in shielded environments like periodontal pockets and tooth crevices. Such an aggregation of microbes on tooth surfaces has been traditionally referred to as ‘plaque’ because of its yellowish color, reminiscent of mucosal plaques caused by syphilis.

Dental plaque has been defined as “a specific but highly variable structural entity consisting of micro-organisms and their products embedded in a highly organized intercellular matrix.” It represents a true biofilm consisting of a variety of micro-organisms involved in a wide range of physical, metabolic and molecular interactions. The cooperative nature of a microbial community provides advantages to the participating organisms such as a broader habitat range for growth, enhanced resistance to antimicrobial agents and host defenses and enhanced pathogenicity.[1]

Biofilms have been implicated as the chief culprit in the etiopathogenesis of dental caries and periodontal disease. Though uncalcified biofilms can be removed by routine oral hygiene aids or professional dental instruments, they have the potential to calcify into dental calculus making their removal difficult. Hence, these biofilms pose a great challenge to the dental clinician in the control and eradication of biofilm-associated diseases.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Biofilms are nothing new. The first description dates back to the 17^thcentury, when Anton Von Leeuwenhoek - the inventor of the Microscope, saw microbial aggregates (now known to be Biofilms) on scrapings of plaque from his teeth.

The term ‘Biofilm’ was coined by Bill Costerton in 1978.

In 2002, Donlan and Costerton offered the most salient description of a biofilm. They stated that biofilm is “a microbially derived sessile community characterized by cells that are irreversibly attached to a substratum or interface or to each other, embedded in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances that they have produced, and exhibit an altered phenotype with respect to growth rate and gene transcription.”[2]

WHAT IS A BIOFILM?

The term Biofilm (Wilderer and Charaklis 1989) describes the relatively indefinable microbial community associated with a tooth surface or any other hard non-shedding material, randomly distributed in a shaped matrix or glycocalyx.[2]

In the lower layers of a biofilm, microbes are bound together in a polysaccharide matrix with other organic and inorganic materials. Above it, is a loose amorphous layer extending into the surrounding medium. The fluid layer bordering the biofilm has stationary and dynamic sub layers.

FORMATION OF A BIOFILM

Formation of a biofilm is a complex process that follows several distinct phases, beginning with adsorption on to the tooth surface of a conditioning film derived from bacterial and host molecules, which forms immediately following tooth eruption or tooth cleaning. This adsorption is followed by passive transport of bacteria mediated by weak long-range forces of attraction. Covalent and hydrogen bonds create strong, short-range forces that result in irreversible attachment.

The primary colonizers form a biofilm by autoaggregation (attraction between same species) and coaggregation (attraction between different species). Coaggregation[4] results in a functional organization of plaque bacteria and formation of different morphologic structures such as Corncobs and Rosettes. The microenvironment now changes from aerobic/capnophilic to facultative anaerobic. The attached bacteria multiply and secrete an extracellular matrix, which results in a mature mixed-population biofilm.

After one day, the term Biofilm is fully deserved because organization takes place within it. Transmission occurs from other sites, leading to incorporation of new members into the biofilm and the formation of a climax community. The thickness of the plaque increases slowly with time, increasing to 20 to 30 μm after three days.

Four stages of dental plaque biofilm growth (as shown in Figure 1)

Stage I - Attachment (lag - not inert, but metabolically reduced)

Stage II - Growth (log - exponential growth)

Stage III - Maturity (stationary)

Stage IV - Dispersal (death)

PROPERTIES OF BIOFILMS

Biofilms are ubiquitous; they form on virtually all surfaces immersed in natural aqueous environments. A biofilm confers certain properties to bacteria that are not seen in the planktonic state, a fact that justifies recognition of dental plaque as a biofilm.

A major advantage is the protection that biofilm provides to the colonizing species from competing micro-organisms, environmental factors such as host defense mechanisms and potentially toxic substances like lethal chemicals or antibiotics. Biofilms also facilitate processing and uptake of nutrients, cross feeding and removal of potentially harmful metabolic products through the voids or water channels between the micro-colonies, acting as a primitive circulatory system.[1] They also create an appropriate physicochemical environment such as a properly reduced oxidation reduction potential.

An important characteristic seen in Biofilm-associated bacteria is Quorum sensing, or cell density mediated gene expression.[5] This involves the regulation of expression of specific genes through the accumulation of signaling compounds that mediate intercellular communication. Quorum sensing may give biofilms their distinct properties. Eg.- Expression of genes for antibiotic resistance at high cell densities may provide protection. It also has the potential to influence community structure by encouraging the growth of species beneficial to the biofilm and discouraging the growth of competitors.

Another important characteristic of biofilm associated bacteria is the gene transfer[6] through which bacteria communicates with each other. In S. mutans, quorum sensing is mediated by competence stimulating peptide, wherein genes are responsible for multiple functions - biofilm formation, competence and acid tolerance.

Biofilm related Regulation of gene expression has been shown in certain bacteria. eg. Exposure of S. gordonii to saliva results in induction of genes that mediate host surface binding and coaggregation with P. gingivalis and Actinomyces. Similarly, genes encoding glucan and fructan synthesis are differentially regulated in Biofilm-associated S. mutans.

MECHANISM OF INCREASED ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN BIOFILMS

Organisms in a Biofilm are 1000-1500 times more resistant to antibiotics than in their planktonic state. The mechanisms[2] of this increased resistance differ from species to species, antibiotic to antibiotic and for biofilms growing in different habitats. This antibiotic resistance in bacteria is thought to be affected by their nutritional status, growth rate, temperature, pH and prior exposure to sub-effective concentrations of antimicrobial agents. Another important mechanism appears to be the slower rate of growth of bacterial species in a biofilm, which makes them less susceptible to bactericidal antibiotics. Biofilm matrix can resist diffusion of antibiotics. Eg. strongly charged or chemically highly reactive agents can fail to reach the deeper zones of the biofilm as it acts as an ion exchanger in removing such molecules from solution.

‘Super-resistant’ bacteria have been identified within a biofilm, which have multidrug-resistance pumps that can extrude antimicrobial agents from the cell. Since these pumps place the antibiotics outside the outer membrane, the process offers protection against antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. Above mentioned observations are critical to the use of antimicrobials in the treatment of Biofilm-associated infections.[7]

BIOFILMS AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Biofilms have been found to be involved in a wide variety of microbial infections (by one estimate 80% of all infections). These include dental caries, periodontal disease, otitis media, musculoskeletal infections, necrotizing fascitis, biliary tract infection, osteomyelitis, bacterial prostatitis, native valve endocarditis, meloidosis, cystic fibrosis pneumonia and peri-implantitis. Salient features of these infections are persistence and chronicity.[2]

What is biofilm and why can it be so dangerous?  

What is quorum sensing?  Discuss quorum sensing in terms of biofilm development?  

Explain the phrase, “dentistry focuses on biofilm.”

Consider the language L over alphabets (a, b) that produces strings of the form aa* (a + b) b*a.

a) Construct a nondeterministic finite automata (NFA) for the language L given

b) Construct a deterministic finite automaton (DFA) for the NFA you have constructed

PRINCIPLE # 4: FALLING UP
PRINCIPLE # 5: THE ZORRO CIRCLE
PRINCIPLE # 6: THE 20-SECOND RULE

Pick one of the above Principles (4, 5 or 6) and write 3 full paragraphs on the key insights gained and how these insights can be applicable to increase the level of well-being and happiness in the social services field.

Then pick one of the other Principles not written about above and write 1 full paragraphs on the key insights gained and how these insights can be applicable to increase the level of well-being and happiness in the social services field.

Explain digestion from the mouth to the anus. What are the enzymes that carrying it ? What does the ph need to be for them to work ? The acids ?

Im trying to derive Cp - Cv = R where Cp and Cv are the molar specific heats at constant pressure and volume respectively. (R = 8.314 J/(mol*K)). So I'm only having problems with the last step.

I get that for a process at constant pressure we have:

∆E(internal) = Q + W = nCp∆T - P∆V

And I get that for a process at constant volume we have:

∆E(internal) = Q + W = Q + 0 => ∆E(internal) = Q

The last step is setting these two equations equal to one another, but I don't understand how we know that the internal energy of both processes are the same.

Ernest Rutherford (the first New Zealander to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry) demonstrated that nuclei were very small and dense by scattering helium-4 nuclei (4He) from gold-197 nuclei (197Au). The energy of the incoming helium nucleus was 7.47 ✕ 10−13 J, and the masses of the helium and gold nuclei were 6.68 ✕ 10−27 kg and 3.29 ✕ 10−25 kg, respectively (note that their mass ratio is 4 to 197). (Assume that the helium nucleus travels in the +x direction before the collision.) a)If a helium nucleus scatters to an angle of 108° during an elastic collision with a gold nucleus, calculate the helium nucleus' final speed (in m/s) and the final velocity (magnitude in m/s and direction counterclockwise from the +x-axis) of the gold nucleus. b)What is the final kinetic energy (in J) of the helium nucleus?

What is an example in society about Hypothesis testing?

Use tabulated half-cell potentials to calculate ?G?rxn for each of the following reactions at 25 ?C.

Part A 2Fe3+(aq)+3Sn(s)?2Fe(s)+3Sn2+(aq)

Part B O2(g)+2H2O(l)+2Cu(s)?4OH?(aq)+2Cu2+(aq)

Part C Br2(l)+2I?(aq)?2Br?(aq)+I2(s)

A Light of wavelength 650 nm falls on two slits and produces an interference pattern in which the third-order bright red fringe is 47 mm from the central fringe on a screen 1.4 m away.

What is the separation of the two slits?

B In a double-slit experiment, the third-order maximum for light of wavelength 520 nm is located 17 mm from the central bright spot on a screen 1.6 m from the slits. Light of wavelength 630 nm is then projected through the same slits. How far from the central bright spot will the second-order maximum of this light be located?

C Light of wavelength 620 nm falls on a slit that is 3.70×10⁻³ mm wide. How far the first bright diffraction fringe is from the strong central maximum if the screen is 10.5 m away.

D A grating that has 3900 slits per cm produces a third-order fringe at a 27.0 ∘ angle.

What wavelength of light is being used?

E Red laser light from a He-Ne laser (λ = 632.8 nm) creates a second-order fringe at 53.2∘ after passing through the grating. What is the wavelength λ of light that creates a first-order fringe at 22.0 ∘ ?

F Light of wavelength 670 nm passes through two narrow slits 0.65 mm apart. The screen is 2.40 m away. A second source of unknown wavelength produces its second-order fringe 1.21 mm closer to the central maximum than the 670 nm light. What is the wavelength of the unknown light?

Will Magnesium spontaneously reduce Copper ion (Cu+2) to Copper (Cu)? Explain. What is the Edegree?

Mg(s) + Cu+2(aq)---> Cu(s) + Mg+2(aq)

How a cell can extract 38 molecules of ATP (net) from one molecule of glucose? Explain in detail.