Question

Your answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter.  Please use the key terms from the chapter to help you answer the following questions.  I expect thorough, well-thought out answers for each question.  Make sure to number your answers to the questions accordingly and proofread before submitting.  

1. What is the relationship between each of the substages in Piaget’s theory of the sensorimotor period? How does the infant get from one stage to the next?

2. Define language, and explain the concept of infinite generativity.

3. Discuss evidence regarding the nature and nurture bases for language development.

4. Summarize the milestones in the development of language by infants.

5. Explain how developmentalists have studied emotions in infants.

6. Discuss what we learn about infant cognitive and social development by studying infant smiling and crying.

7. Explain Erikson’s concept of trust versus mistrust. Give a hypothetical situation of a parent–infant interaction that leads to the infant developing trust and a hypothetical situation in which the infant would develop mistrust.

Answer 1

1). The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It extends from birth to approximately 2 years, and is a period of rapid cognitive growth.

During this period, infants develop an understanding of the world through trial and error using their senses and actions (i.e., motor movements).

The sensorimotor stage of development can be broken down into six additional sub-stages including simple reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of reactions, tertiary circular reactions, and early symbolic thought.

Reflex Acts

The first substage (first month of life) is the stage of reflex acts. The neonate responds to external stimulation with innate reflex actions.

For example, if you brush a baby’s mouth or cheek with your finger it will suck reflexively.

Primary Circular Reactions

The second substage is the stage of primary circular reactions. The baby will repeat pleasurable actions centered on its own body.

For example, babies from 1 – 4 months old will wiggle their fingers, kick their legs and suck their thumbs. These are not reflex actions. They are done intentionally – for the sake of the pleasurable stimulation produced.

Secondary Circular Reactions

Next comes the stage of secondary circular reactions. It typically lasts from about 4 – 8 months. Now babies repeat pleasurable actions that involve objects as well as actions involving their own bodies.

An example of this is the infant who shakes the rattle for the pleasure of hearing the sound that it produces.

Co-ordinating Secondary Schemes

The fourth substage (from 8 – 12 months) is the stage of co-ordinating secondary schemes. Instead of simply prolonging interesting events, babies now show signs of an ability to use their acquired knowledge to reach a goal.

For example the infant will not just shake the rattle, but will reach out and knock to one side an object that stands in the way of it getting hold of the rattle.

Tertiary Circular Reactions

Fifth comes the stage of tertiary circular reactions. These differ from secondary circular reactions in that they are intentional adaptations to specific situations. The infant who once explored an object by taking it apart now tries to put it back together.

For example, it stacks the bricks it took out of its wooden truck back again or it puts back the nesting cups – one inside the other.

Symbolic Thought

Finally, in substage six there is the beginning of symbolic thought. This is transitional to the preoperational stage of cognitive development. Babies can now form mental representations of objects.

This means that they have developed the ability to visualize things that are not physically present. This is crucial to the acquisition of object permanence – the most fundamental achievement of the whole sensorimotor stage of development.

2).

Language can be defined as form of communication between one or more persons’. Language can be spoken, written, read, and signed in many different languages. Infinite generativity explains the ability to communicate in an endless number of meaningful and structured sentences.

3).

How humans possess the language ability is a matter of long controversy among the linguists. Some of them believe that the ability of language is the result of innate knowledge. Unlike other species, humans possess that innate ability which is genetically coded. To them language is the outcome of nature (genes). Conversely, others claim that the ability of language is learned through experience extracting all the linguistic information from the outside environment. It is the outcome of nurture (environmental factors/stimuli). At present, there is no clear winner regarding the debate as both genes and environmental factors/stimuli seem to play a vital and important role in language acquisition.

It is language, more obviously than anything else, that distinguishes humankind from the rest of the animal world. At one time it was common to define a human as a thinking animal, but we can hardly imagine thoughtwithout words – no thought that is at all precise, anyway. More recently,humans have often been described as tool-making animals: but language itself is the most remarkable tool that they have invented, and is the one that makes most of the others possible. The most primitive tools, admittedly, may have come earlier than language: the higher apes sometimes use sticks as elementary tools and even break them for this purpose. But tools of any greater sophistication demand the kind of human co-operation and division of labor which is hardly possible without language. Language, in fact, is the great machine-tool which makes human culture possible.

4).

The most intensive period of speech and language development for humans is during the first three years of life, a period when the brain is developing and maturing. These skills appear to develop best in a world that is rich with sounds, sights, and consistent exposure to the speech and language of others.

There is increasing evidence suggesting that there are "critical periods" for speech and language development in infants and young children. This means that the developing brain is best able to absorb a language, any language, during this period. The ability to learn a language will be more difficult, and perhaps less efficient or effective, if these critical periods are allowed to pass without early exposure to a language. The beginning signs of communication occur during the first few days of life when an infant learns that a cry will bring food, comfort, and companionship. The newborn also begins to recognize important sounds in his or her environment. The sound of a parent or voice can be one important sound. As they grow, infants begin to sort out the speech sounds (phonemes) or building blocks that compose the words of their language. Research has shown that by six months of age, most children recognize the basic sounds of their native language.

As the speech mechanism (jaw, lips, and tongue) and voice mature, an infant is able to make controlled sound. This begins in the first few months of life with "cooing," a quiet, pleasant, repetitive vocalization. By six months of age, an infant usually babbles or produces repetitive syllables such as "ba, ba, ba" or "da, da, da." Babbling soon turns into a type of nonsense speech (jargon) that often has the tone and cadence of human speech but does not contain real words. By the end of their first year, most children have mastered the ability to say a few simple words. Children are most likely unaware of the meaning of their first words, but soon learn the power of those words as others respond to them.

By eighteen months of age, most children can say eight to ten words. By age two, most are putting words together in crude sentences such as "more milk." During this period, children rapidly learn that words symbolize or represent objects, actions, and thoughts. At this age they also engage in representational or pretend play. At ages three, four, and five, a child's vocabulary rapidly increases, and he or she begins to master the rules of language.

5).

Birth to four months:

After birth the only method of communication of a baby is crying. Generally, three different types of cries are noted. Whenever the baby feels hungry, she/he cries. The baby cries due to pain and anger too. If parents respond to the cry of the baby immediately during this stage it fosters the development of a strong sense of trust. Social smiling begins during this period, and also anger and surprise.

Four to eight months:

During this period, the infant begins to express a wider range of emotions. The infant learns to express pleasure, fear and frustration through physical movement such as smiling, arm-waving, rocking, and kicking. Emotions of fear, joy, surprise etc. are called primary emotions. The reasons for these emotions are difficult to understand all the time. An infant cries due to various reasons, e.g., hunger or pain. An infant can’t say why he/she is crying. By observing facial expressions it is not easy to find out why he/she is crying.

Eighteen months:

During this stage, the infants develop more complex emotion known as secondary or social emotions. Around this age, the infant starts to develop a sense of self, he/she can recognize his/her image in a mirror as himself/ herself. He/she begins to become independent of parents. The baby at this age has a broad range of emotional states. The emotional reactions fluctuate significantly. One minute the baby may be playing happily, the next moment lying on the floor crying. Emotions at this stage include shame, guilt and embarrassment.

Two years onwards:

From two years onwards most children become able to communicate their feelings in words. However, they do not always express the actual feelings. Sometimes they may say something, what they really think or feel, but sometimes they may say something what others may want to listen to. Again, the words they use may not convey their true meaning accurately as the baby has very limited number of words in his/her stock.

6).

Every child is born with her or his unique way of approaching the world. This is called temperament. Some young children, for example, are constantly on the move while others prefer to sit and watch the world around them. Some young children enjoy new experiences and meeting new people while others are slower to warm up in new situations. Rothbart (1989) defined temperament as individual personality differences in infants and young children. As Murphy and Moon describe, “infants and young children vary greatly in their interest in different sensory areas, in the intensity of their attention to sensory stimuli, and in their sensitivity to feelings of comfort and discomfort, familiarity and strangeness, and the emotional context in which sensory experiences occur.”

Infants are born with a unique temperament. There is no right or wrong, good or bad temperament. By understanding temperament, you can continue to use what you know about infants and toddlers to encourage their strengths and support their needs. In the Apply section, you will review more information about the temperament and consider what it means for your role as a responsive caregiver.

No matter how well you understand temperament and are attuned and responsive, there will be times that an infant or toddler in your care may not seem to be developing socially and emotionally. Some infants and toddlers may experience social or emotional difficulties. These difficulties may be related to inborn (nature) or environmental (nurture) influences. The caregiving strategies in this lesson apply and relate to all children; however, some children may require an additional level of support.

Each infant’s or toddler’s relationship experiences and pattern of growth is different. In your work, you observe and track each young child’s particular strengths and possible areas of need. Your screening and assessment process is part of your ongoing routine, and it helps you to recognize and celebrate infants’ and toddlers’ accomplishments. It also helps you to identify red flags—some aspects of the infant’s or toddler’s development that is outside the expected age range.

The following general strategies can help you care for infants and toddlers who are experiencing social and emotional difficulties. You can also talk with your supervisor, trainer or coach about additional community resources and specialists who support your program who may offer additional support.

• Observe and notice the infant’s or toddler’s cues and responses to environmental stimuli. Think about ways to limit the noise level, for example or visual stimuli.
• Observe and ask yourself if you notice increased frustration or irritability in the infant or toddler during particular routines or times of the day.
• Think about ways to maintain physical closeness and offer a gentle touch to help infants and toddlers maintain a sense of control.

7).

The Ericson concept explains that an infant begins to develop trust and mistrust very early in age. He explains that if an infant’s needs are fulfilling or satisfied then that infant begins to develop trust. One hypothetical example consists of the process in which a parent feeds an infant when the infant becomes hungry. The infant becomes satisfied because the parent has taken care of that infant's needs quickly thus results in the development of trust build between infant and parent. Mistrust between infant and parent is developed when the parents do not fulfill or satisfy the infant's needs. One hypothetical example is when the infant needs to have a dirty diaper and need to change. That infant will begin to cry however the parent ignores the infant’s cry. This is when mistrust is developed because the infant’s needs were not fulfilled.