explain why bacterial mismatch repair is only effective on mutations that occur during the replication process.

6. Antigenic shift can occur in a variety of microbes.

Using layman’s terms, explain antigenic shift.

What is an antigen and how does it get “shifted?”

Why does an antigenic shift sometimes lead to a pandemic in humans, whereas sometimes it leads to a virus that generally does not infect humans?

QUESTION 15

1. Which of the following is NOT TRUE about the Rb pathway:

   		Rb is a tumor suppressor originally identified in retinoblastomas
   		Alfred Knudson noted that retinoblastomas can occur in either an inherited or a sporadic fashion in the 1960s
   		RB was cloned in the 1980s, after p53 was identified
   		Only young children develop retinoblastomas
   		RB is phosphorylated by CDKs, preventing binding to E2F

2 points   

QUESTION 16

1. Which of the following is NOT TRUE about p53:

   		in tumors lacking RB, p53 expression is high
   		it was originally thought to be an oncogene
   		it was first identified as binding to the human papilloma virus E7 protein
   		it is the most commonly mutated gene in human cancer
   		it is considered to be guardian of the genome

2 points   

QUESTION 17

1. Which ONE of the following is TRUE about “knock-out” & “knock-down” technologies

   		A knock-out of a tumor suppressor gene can cause cancer, while a knock-down cannot
   		A knock-out is a physical modification to the genome, while a knock-down affects only gene expression
   		There is no difference, they are just two different ways to describe genetic manipulation of the genome
   		A knock-out of an oncogene can cause cancer, while a knock-down cannot
   		A knock-out can be reversed and controlled, while a knock-down is a permanent modification

2 points   

QUESTION 18

1. Which ONE of the following is NOT TRUE about BCR-ABL:

   		the fusion protein is oncogenic because BCR retains ABL in the cytoplasm where it phosphorylates new substrates
   		the translocation is caused by bimolane, a topoisomerase inhibitor, used as a medical treatment in China
   		ABL is a tyrosine kinase in the Src family
   		the translocated chromosome is referred to as the Philadelphia chromosome
   		it is a fusion protein created by a reciprocal translocation found in chronic myelogenous leukemia

2 points   

QUESTION 19

1. Which ONE of the following is NOT TRUE about PML-RAR:

   		the translocation is caused by ionizing irradiation and found in Hiroshima and Nagasaki victims
   		it is a fusion protein created by a reciprocal translocation found in acute promyelocytic leukemia
   		the fusion protein retains the ability of the retinoic acid receptor (RAR) to bind retinoic acid and DNA
   		PML contains zinc fingers and a coiled-coil domain, which are important for maintaining the structure of nuclear bodies

2 points   

QUESTION 20

1. The CRISPR-Cas9 is a genome editing system. It was first discovered as…

   		The defense mechanism in bacteria against bacteriophages
   		The defense mechanism in bacteria against humans
   		The defense mechanism in zebrafish against bacteria
   		The defense mechanism in bacteria against macrophages
   		The defense mechanism in zebrafish against sharks

What are the main ways of delivering pharmaceutical agents into the body? Describe one of these routes in more detail.

explain what properties must a chemical have to have a therapeutic effect in humans

distinguish between exponential and logistic growth

Explain in detail the two most unique things about fungi compared to other groups of organisms.

Multiple Choice Please answer all 3 no need to go in Depth

Instead of developing a head and a tail, an abnormal Drosophila embryo develops two tails. This is most likely due to _____.

Specific cells that appear undifferentiated under the microscope but are already fated to become muscle cells are called _____.

All your cells contain proto-oncogenes, which can change into cancer-causing genes. Why do cells possess such potential time bombs?

We talked about the genes controlling our ability to digest lactose, the sugar found in milk. Collectively the enzymes produced by the set of genes involved are called lactase. "Lactose intolerance" describes the most common condition in human adults, which is an inability to digest lactose because lactase is not produced. These people could all produce lactase as infants, however, so they have the genes needed to produce functional enzymes. Somehow the regulation of expression of the genes changes as most people grow up.

People who can digest lactose as adults are said to be "lactase persistent", that is, they continue to produce lactase even in adulthood. Ponder the genetic mechanisms for regulating the expression of the genes producing lactase and describe three feasible hypotheses for mutations affecting the regulating mechanisms that would enable a person to produce lactase as an adult.

a) Describe, in detail, how a genetic cross can be used to identify the number of genes involved in major changes in body form between two different organisms.

b) If you found a group of similar species living on nearby islands, describe in detail a method you could use to determine their exact evolutionary relationship to each other.

c) Describe, in detail, how a mutation in the intracellular domain of MC1R could change the coat color in rock pocket from light to dark.

d) Besides looking for microfossils, describe another test you could perform on rocks from 3-4 billion years ago to find evidence that life existed at that time?

Name two major types of ionizing radiation that can cause DNA lesions. What are the two main types of lesion that ionizing radiation cause, and which type is double-strand breaks? What are four possible results of double-strand breaks?

What type of damage to DNA does aflatoxin cause? Where does it come from, and what must happen to it for it to become activated to cause DNA damage?

1. Deleterious alleles can be maintained in a population when carriers are protected against certain unrelated, but common disease. This situation is described as:

   A) Genetic drift B) Heterozygote advantage C) Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium D) Polymorphism E) Genetic admixture

Give 4 examples of protists that exemplify the diversity of form and function in this group of organisms. Tell the name of the protist, its unique cellular structure, and its functional role in the ecosystem (i.e. where it lives, what/how it eats, etc.)

28) DNA fingerprinting utilizes _________

29) Bacteria perform a form of cell division called __________

30)Which level of protein structure involves the coiling of the polypeptide into an alpha helix?

35) If the frequency of 2 alleles in a population is p = 08 and q = 0.2, and the population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, then the frequency of homozygote recessive genotype is ____________

36) The majority of homeostatic processes in the human bodywork on the principle of positive feedback control (T / F)

37) Photosynthesis is not an example of an oxidation-reduction reaction

39) Which type of population age structure diagram is associated with low juvenile mortality and low reproductives rates?

40) Which organ system produces developmental hormones?

42) If one parent is heterozygous for a gene and the other parent is homozygous recessives for the same gene, what is the chance that they have a child showing the recessive form of the gene in their phenotype?

43) The physical location of a gene on a chromosome is called the ______________

How can you tell if a population is going through demographic transition?