1. What types of foods are fortified? Give an example.

2. In order for fortified foods to have their intended impact, what things are necessary?

3. Do consumers need to be aware that a food is fortified in order to receive benefits?

4. Are fortified foods necessarily good for us? Give an example of a fortified food that could also be high in added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium

5. Do you think food fortification is still necessary in the United States today? Why or why not?

One difficulty in extracting sequencing reads that correspond to mitochondrial DNA from mixed fragments of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA is the nuclear genome contains segments homologous to regions of the mitochondrial genome called "numts." Mammalian genomes contain 50-450 kb of numts (the human genome contains 1005 numts, averaging 446 bp).

Estimate the fraction of reads from fragments of mammoth DNA that are likely to be numts. The mammoth genome is approximately 4.7x10^9 bases in length.

Describe the fluid mosaic model of the phospholipid bilayer.

Explain how the humoral immunity and cellular immunity work together.

10a. Name the three post-transcriptional processing events that take place to generate a mature mRNA from a nascent transcript?

1. ________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________

3. ________________________________________________________

b. Describe a specific example of how one of these processing events can provide functional diversity for a given gene.

please explain in simple details.

what is magnaporthe oryzae?

is it a fungus? where does it come from?

how does it affect plants?

how does it impact the enrvironmet?

how does the disease cycle start?

9. The process of DNA replication creates a particular problem for replicating the ends of linear chromosomes.
a) Describe why the DNA replication machinery has difficulty replicating DNA ends.

b) Telomerase has been identified as an enzyme that can reverse the outcome of end replication.
Describe the near-universal mammalian chromosome telomere sequence and how telomerase solves the problem of end replication.

1. Describe common modifications of stems. Which ones are important for human use, and why?

2. Discuss the function of a fleshy fruit. How do humans use fleshy fruits? Is the relationship with humans beneficial for these plants?

1. Alpha thalassaemia is a blood condition resulting from abnormal haemoglobin production, due to loss of function of copies of either HBA1 or HBA2 genes. These genes are very similar and next to each other on the chromosome; for simplicity’s sake we talk about having four copies of the HBA gene (two alleles, with two HBA copies on each allele).

Alleles are depicted with α representing a functioning HBA gene, and - representing a non-functioning gene. For example, the genotype α-/αα represents someone with one allele with only one HBA copy functioning, and a second allele with both HBA copies functioning.

There are multiple phenotypes of alpha thalassaemia, which generally depend on how many of the four HBA copies are functioning. This is outlined in the table below:

Both Indian and Southeast Asian populations have relatively high rates of alpha thalassaemia.

In Indian populations, alleles with one HBA gene copy deleted are the common cause of alpha thalassaemia conditions. Alleles with both HBA gene copies deleted are rare.

In Southeast Asian populations, alleles with both HBA gene copies deleted are the common cause of alpha thalassaemia conditions. Alleles with one HBA gene copy deleted are rare.

You are providing genetic counselling to an Indian couple, both of whom have alpha thalassaemia trait due to mutations commonly seen in their population.

Regarding alpha thalassaemia, what are the phenotypes possible for a pregnancy for this couple? Give the chance of each phenotype.

1. Diagram and discuss the structure of a woody stem. Which tissues are economically important? Why?

2. Flowers are sometimes referred to as ‘pets of the plant world’. Explain this statement. How did alliance with humankind affect the evolution of plants cultivated for their flowers?

1) Compare and contrast intensive agriculture and prairie agriculture in terms of their effects on the environment.

2) Parenchyma is one of the most common tissue types. Describe common human use(s) for parenchyma. Which properties of parenchyma make it suitable for human use?

Plasma Membrane. What is the composition of plasma membrane (PM) of a bacterial cell? How does this compare to a eukaryotic cell? List the functions of the PM. Without complex internal membranes, where do prokaryotes carry out membrane-bound chemical reactions such as ATP synthesis or photosynthesis?

The green fluorescent protein and 4-methylideneimidazole-5-one (MIO) containing enzymes, have a cofactors made from the cyclization of three amino acids. Draw the structure of MIO and the green fluorescent protein chromophore, then circle atoms derived from each amino acid.

1. A boat carrying 2,000 passengers sets sail for an island with a population of 23,000. Both of these populations consist of an equal number of males and females.

21 male passengers on the ship have an X-linked recessive condition. 15 of the male island inhabitants have the same condition, and no females on the ship or the island show the phenotype.

1. What is the frequency of the disease-causing allele on the ship?

2. How many females on the ship would you expect to be carriers for this condition?

3. The ship docks, and a woman from the island falls pregnant to an unaffected man from the ship. What are the chances their first son will be affected with the condition?

4. An affected man from the island and a woman from the ship have a girl. What is the daughter’s chance of being a carrier?