1. Which of the following environmental factors is highly correlated with color vision in fish?

   		water temperature
   		water salinity
   		water depth
   		the coloration of prey

Explain the difference between non-disjunction during Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Which is more detrimental to the genetic compositionof the gametes? Explain your answer

If a diploid cell is 2N=8, draw the chromosomes of the following. How many chromosomes and chromatids would you see on the cells in the following stages.

a) Nullisomic for chromosome 2 in G1

b) Monosomic for chromosome 1 in G1

c) Tetrasomic for chromosome 4 in mitotic metaphase

d) Trisomic for chromosome 2 in G2

e) Triploid in metaphase 1 of meiosis

Explain how the depolarization stage of an action potential occurs and provide the change in electrical charge during depolarization. Be sure to address driving forces (gradients) in your answer.

Question 11 pts

which of the following events turns on/activates T and B cells?  

Group of answer choices

fever

T and B cells bind to the antigen (epitope) that they recognize

Release of type-1 interferons

antibodies bind to T and B cells

complement activation

Question 21 pts

under NORMAL circumstances, which of the following is NOT an antigen (or not likely to be an antigen)?

Group of answer choices

molecules bound by TCR

molecules bound by soluble antibodies and BCR

viral or bacterial components

host/self molecules

molecules that the immune system (T and B cells) can recognize, bind and respond to

Question 31 pts

which of the following does NOT describe an antibody molecule:

Group of answer choices

is made by a B cell

has two antigen-binding sites

can bind to 2 different antigens/epitopes at once

Its stem (Fc region) can activate complement or stimulate cells of the innate defences to respond (e.g.,damage eukaryotic pathogens or do phagocytosis)

binds to ONE specific antigen/epitope/microbe

Question 41 pts

opsonization:

Group of answer choices

is something that ANTI-BIOTICS (instead of anti-bodies) do to bacteria to control or eliminate them

helps/facilitates phagocytosis

is something done by anti-BODIES (immunoglobulins) only

is defined as preventing microbes or toxins from attaching to our cells

is NOT done by complement

Question 51 pts

the class-2 pathway of antigen presentation is used for:  

Group of answer choices

displaying antigen so CD4 T cell can bind it

used for displaying “endogenous” antigens

displaying components of microbes that live or replicate inside an infected cell (i.e., in the cytosol)

displaying antigen so CD8 T cell can bind it

displaying antigen so dendritic cells can bind it

displaying antigen so B cells can bind it

Question 61 pts

which of the following is a role of the lymphatic system:

Group of answer choices

transports type-1 interferons to site of infection

transports complement to site of infection

causes the symptoms and signs of inflammation (such as redness and swelling)

brings microbes/antigens into contact with T and B cells

Question 71 pts

the differential white blood cell count:

Group of answer choices

Refers ONLY to the number of T cells and B cells in the blood

is the relative numbers of memory cells and effector cells in the blood

does NOT change during the course of infection

includes the amount of complement proteins in the blood

can give us an idea of the patient’s condition during an infection

Question 81 pts

A B-cell that recognizes the spike of covid-19 virus/sars-cov-2 makes antibodies that bind:

Group of answer choices

any protein component of covid-19 virus, not just the spike

the RNA polymerase of the covid-19 virus

the RNA polymerase of any RNA virus

the spike of the flu virus only

spike of the covid-19 virus only

Question 91 pts

T and B cells are active/functional ALL the TIME, even when there is no infection nor exposure to microbe that T or B cells recognize

Group of answer choices

True

False

Question 101 pts

worms and eukaryotic pathogens are mainly controlled by:   

Group of answer choices

phagocytosis

the humoral immune response ONLY

cytotoxic T cells (CTL)

cytokines & enzymes from Th/T helper cells

Type 1 interferons and inflammation

antibodies and cells of the innate defences (ADCC)

Question 111 pts

A CTL/activated CD8T cell that recognizes the replicase enzyme of the hepatitis b virus can destroy:

Group of answer choices

cells of the body infected by any pathogen

cells of the body infected by covid-19

cells of the body infected hepatitis b virus that is presenting epitopes of the replicase enzyme

B cell displaying hepatitis b replicase epitope by the class-2 pathway

uninfected cells of the body

cells of the body infected by hepatitis b that is presenting epitopes of the heptatitis b spike protein ONLY

Question 121 pts

which antigen is mostly likely to be displayed by the class-1 pathway of antigen presentation?

Group of answer choices

viral proteins made inside infected cell

bacterial exo-enzyme

components of microbe that has entered the antigen presenting cell via a vesicle (i.e., entered the cell via endocytosis)

components of bacteria found in body fluids or extracellular space

bacterial exo-toxin

Question 131 pts

Infection by the flu virus turns on:

Group of answer choices

only T and B cells that recognize the flu virus

all T and B cells that recognize viruses (not just ones that recognize the flu virus)

all T cells only

all B cells only

all T cells and B cells

Innate defences only, not the immune system

Question 141 pts

“activated” (functional) T or B cells that respond to (or “attack”) microbe/antigen during a FUTURE re-exposure to the microbe are called___. These cells are generated during_____,

(for each choice: the item before the semicolon goes into the first space; item after the semicolon goes into the 2nd space.)

Group of answer choices

antigen presenting cells; antigen presentation

phagocytes; inflammation

mast cells; allergies

memory cells; T or B cell activation

effector cells; T or B cell activation

Question 151 pts

B cell activation requires:

Group of answer choices

signals from CD8 T cells (CTL)

signals from CD4 T/Th cells

B cell binding to antigen

B cell binding to antigen and signals from CD4 T/Th cells

B cell making physical contact with Dendritic cells

Question 161 pts

the following should occur when the immune system is re-exposed to a microbe it encountered in the past:

Group of answer choices

B cells should release higher amounts of antibodies and CTLs should kill more infected cells

the amount of antibodies decline very rapidly-within 2 weeks after re-exposure to microbe

the T and B cells that recognize the microbe are turned on more slowly

memory cells are not binding/responding to microbe

Th cells should release lower amounts of cytokines than during the primary response

Question 171 pts

what is the role of IgE (E class antibodies):

Group of answer choices

“all-purpose” antibody

protects us during the early part of an infection

prevent microbes from infecting mucus membranes

fighting off worms or other eukaryotic pathogens

Question 181 pts

An antibiotic can be used as a drug:  

Group of answer choices

when it’s shown to have selective toxicity

as soon as it’s discovered

when it is proven NOT to cause resistance in bacteria

when your instructor says so

when people figure out a way to modify it so that bacteria cannot overcome them

Question 191 pts

one reason that secondary/memory responses are stronger than primary responses is because there are more cells that recognize and respond to the antigen/microbe in a secondary response

Group of answer choices

True

False

Question 201 pts

what is the advantage of using broad-spectrum antibiotics?

Group of answer choices

controls spread of resistance by wiping out resistant bacteria

they specifically kill pathogenic bacteria

keep patients alive until pathogen is identified

they are also effective against diseases caused by viruses

helps to maintain normal flora population

24. What is meant by the statement ‘sea level rise is relative’? Relative to what? How can sea level be rising on the North Carolina coast but declining on the Alaskan coast if it is all one interconnected ocean?

34. Describe what problems a global increase in atmospheric CO₂ can cause for coral reef ecosystems.

• At least two application of evaporation in a bioengineering process, explained, with biography please

Describe the experiments conducted by Mendell with the pea pods. How did it indicate the inheritance of traits?

2.Explain how a Punnett square can be used to predict trait heritability percentages.

Describe the tenets of Mendelian genetics. Are these tenants held true for all genes?What are some things that can cause exceptions to Mendelian genetics. Why do these cause complications?

1.      a) where does the Calvin cycle happen in Sansevieria trifasciata?
         b) summurize the photosynthesis difference between Sansevieria trifasciata and typical C3 plants. what general category does Sansevieria trifasciata plant fit in.

The earliest fossil form, in the phylogeny of horse, is

(a) Eqiitts

(b) Mesohippus

(c) Eohippus

(d) Merychippus.

Imagine you are a first year graduate student at an institution in the US. You have decided to hold a "friendsgiving" feast the weekend before Thanksgiving, including some of your classmates and friends from other departments. One of your guests, who is studying physics, asks you what the biological differences between "dark" meat and "white" meat are. Identify three differences between dark and white meat, and explain the biological significance or implication of each in 1 sentence.

A new medical imaging device is designed and made for screening of breast cancer. Describe how experiments can be performed and used to determine the accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of the device. Using your own hypothetical values, calculate the accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of the device. Is the device suitable for screening for breast cancer, based on your calculated values of its accuracy, sensitivity and specificity? Explain.

There are two theories to explain how altruistic behavior evolves: reciprocity and kin selection. A. What is altruistic behavior? Briefly explain why it is difficult to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior in 1-2 sentences. B. You observe a species of birds that appears to engage in altruistic behavior, and you are trying to decide if the behavior can be explained through either reciprocity or kin selection. You closely observe the animals, studying the behavior, and perform genetic analysis to determine the familial relationships between them. Briefly describe what results or observations would support each hypothesis (reciprocity or kin selection) in 2-3 sentences each.

Task- genetics

The genes for body color (A), eye color (B) and wing length (C) are linked to the same autosomal chromosome of D. melanogaster, in the order of A - B - C. For body color, alleles encode 'A +' for wild type and 'a' for black body; for eye color, alleles encode 'B +' for wild type and 'b' for pink eyes; For wing length, alleles code 'C +' for wild type and 'c' for short wings. Wild-type alleles ('A +', 'B +', 'C +') dominate the mutant alleles (a, b, c) and the genetic distances between loci are determined at 10 cM (A-B) and 20 cM (B - C).

A pure-eyed female with black body color, short wings and wild-type eyes is crossed to a male with pink eyes and wild-type phenotype for the two other characteristics of the parent generation. The F2 generation is created by crossing F1 females to males from a strain expressing all three recessive mutant properties (analysis crossing).

a) What is the expected frequency of double crossover among the F2 offspring?

b) What is the allelion in the F1 female (indicate as a chromosome sketch)?

c) What phenotypes will be observed among the offspring in F2 and in what conditions if the interference is 1?

d) What phenotypes will be observed among the offspring in F2 and in what conditions if the interference is 0?