Question

Summarizes the Biological Underpinnings of Peer Victimization: Understanding Why and How the Effects of Bullying Can Last a Lifetime

Answer 1

Peer victimization is the term given to the phenomenon in which children experience aggressive behavior or bullying from other children who are not their siblings and may or may not be of the same age group. Peer optimization can be physical or verbal. It can also be in the form of exclusion by attacking social relationships and is called relational victimization.

Peer victimization leads a poor physical and mental health and a poor achievement in academics because of this. Often peer victimization leads to a lasting impact and can thus the hurt remains even after the actual abuse was done a long time back.

the biological underpinnings of peer victimization have been elucidated and many biological aspects associated with this have been discussed

Neuroscientific studies highlight that physical pain and social pain(emotional abuse felt because of the physical pain) are similarly processed in the brain as they act on similar neural substrates. The neuroendocrinology factors state that peer victimization can lead to deregulated hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis(HPA axis) and affect the stress response system of the body. The body usually secretes cortisol as a stress response, but it is observed that bullied children over a long period of time have hyposecretion of cortisol to counter these stress induced by peers. These victims have exposure to severe recurrent exposure to violence causing terror. The post-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD) patients are also known to have lower secretion of cortisol. studies have revealed that students subjected to bullying often suffer from clinical  PTSD. The bullied people also show a circadian pattern of cortisol level that is opposite to the normal people. The stressed people show a lower morning level of cortisol and higher afternoon levels which is opposite to that in normal individuals and is similar to individuals that act to respond to physical threats for themselves.

Exposure to peer victimization also affects the epigenetic phenomenon of DNA methylation.DNA methylation is important in the emergence of neuropsychiatric disorders and in recent studies, it has been found that there is more DNA methylation of the SERT gene(serotonin transporter gene) in the bullied individuals compared to non bullied ones and a subsequent decrease in cortisol response.

there have also been evidences of telomere shortening in these people who have been exposed to bullying.

Peer victimization effects are also associated with the immediate social environment and is seen that girls are more affected in the long run than boys by peer victimization. Suicidal tendencies arise in people who do not have a good social influence on them.

It is also seen that polymorphism in the promoter of the serotonin transporter that renders the short allele less effective is associated with the effect on depression. People who are bullied and are homozygous for the short allele of the serotonin transporter gene are likely to remain depressed for a longer period of time. Thus for these people, the effects of bullying can literally last for a lifetime. They have greater risk of emotional problems when subjected to frequent bullying.

The HPA dysregulation leads to a poorer memory and the genetic constitution can subject people to be at a higher risk of depression from peer victimization which is etched into their lives for a very long term.