1. Describe the levels of cellular organization and state the four major types of cells and tissues.

2. List the organ systems of the body and give one-sentence descriptions of their functions.

3. Name the two fluids that constitute the extracellular fluid. What are their relative proportions in the body?

4. What is one way in which the composition of intracellular and extracellular fluids differ?

5. Describe several important generalizations about homeostatic control systems, including the difference between steady state and equilibrium.

6. Contrastfeedforward,positivefeedback,andnegativefeedback.

7. List the components of a reflex arc.

8. What is the basic difference between a local homeostatic response

   and a reflex?

9. List the general categories of intercellular messengers and briefly

   describe how they differ.

10. Describe the conditions under which acclimatization occurs. Are

    acclimatizations passed on to a person’s offspring?

11. Define circadian rhythm. Under what conditions do circadian

    rhythms become free running?

12. How do phase shifts occur?

13. What is the most important environmental cue for entrainment of

    circadian rhythms?

14. Draw a figure illustrating the balance concept in homeostasis.

15. Make and keep a list of the general principles of physiology. See if

    you can explain what is meant by each principle. To really see how well you’ve learned physiology at the end of your course, remember to return to the list you’ve made and try this exercise again at that time giving as many examples of each principle as you can.

1) Explain the molecular mechanism of action of H1-receptor antagonists-

2) Explain the molecular mechanism of action of H2-receptor antagonists

1) Describe the pharmacological effects of H1-receptor antagonists.

2) Describe the pharmacological effects of H2-receptor antagonists.

3) Describe the metabolism and elimination of H1-receptor antagonists.-

4) Describe the metabolism and elimination of H2-receptor antagonists

1) Describe the main adverse effects of H1 an H2 receptor antagonists.

2) Describe the main contraindications of H1 an H2 receptor antagonists.

3) Describe the main therapeutic uses of H1 and H2 receptor antagonists.

An infant has an enlarged liver and spleen, cataracts and anaemia and exhibits general
retardation of development. Mevalonate is found in the urine. Investigation reveals a
deficiency of mevalonate kinase, which catalyses the formation of 5-
phosphomevalonate from mevalonate.
11.1. Urinary excretion of mevalonate acid is consistent with a deficiency of
mevalonate kinase. Explain the reason for the deficiency using your own

The mother of a close friend of yours is diagnosed with moderate osteoporosis. She is prescribed two hormones, or supplements, or drugs that affect hormones or supplements.

1.) Tell me two possibilities for these medications, and describe how they would help her osteoporosis. Note: I don’t expect you to know any drug names, I’m asking you for what TYPES of drugs.

2.) The mother of your close friend is also told to exercise. Why? Although many types of exercise are appropriate, why is swimming generally not recommended?

You’re lying on your couch watching The Walking Dead when you hear loud pounding at your front door. As you leap to your feet, preparing to run like hell for the back door, gravity pulls the blood out of your brain sending it towards your feet, causing you to see stars and nearly black out. Baroreceptors in your carotid artery detect the drop in blood pressure and signal the medulla oblongata via the glossopharyngeal nerve. The medulla stimulates sympathetic nerves which increase your heart rate, and your blood pressure begins to rise, just in time for you to remember that you ordered a pizza.

1.) List the components of a feedback loop (stimulus, receptor, control center, effector and response) and then identify which items in this scenario are associated with each component.

2.) Is this a positive or a negative feedback loop? Explain your answer.

The mother of your close friend is also told to exercise. Why? Although many types of exercise are appropriate, why is swimming generally not recommended?   

Leah realizes that she cannot wait until her appointment to receive medical care; she quickly goes to the emergency room. After a mountain of questions about Leah’s symptoms and medical history, the doctors decide to admit her for further testing. She is transferred to the neurology unit and the doctors request she undergo a series of laboratory tests, including an MRI and a spinal tap. In the meantime, the doctors prescribe high dosages of steroids to help alleviate the symptoms.

Upon reviewing Leah’s medical history and the results of the various laboratory tests, the neurologists diagnose her with Multiple Sclerosis (MS). They explain to her that MS is an autoimmune disease and that her own immune system has been attacking the myelin sheath that surrounds the nerves of her central nervous system. She remains in the hospital for a week until sensation is fully recovered in her lower body and strength is restored in her legs. She is discharged from the hospital and schedules a follow up appointment with the neurologist.
When she returns to the neurologist, they discuss Leah’s diferent options for treatment. Because there is no cure for the disease, options in medication vary greatly. She decides to try daily injections of Copaxone, a medication that is similar in structure to a protein found in myelin.
Leah continues to see the neurologist on a regular basis and gives herself an injection every evening. Over the course of seven months of therapy, she only experiences one occurrence of numbness, which subsides after a couple of days. She tries to stay positive and tries to minimize the disease’s impact on her life.
Questions

1. What is myelin and how does it affect the transmission of nerve impulses? Identify the cells responsible for the formation of myelin.

2. Why did Leah experience the altered sensation in her lower body? Was there something wrong with her skin?Why couldn’t she stand? Was there something wrong with the muscles of her right leg?

3. What are the “scleroses” in Multiple Sclerosis and where do they occur? How does this influence nerve transmission?

4. How does an MRI and spinal tap help confirm the diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis?

5. Why did steroids help alleviate Kathy’s symptoms?

6. Did Leah’s hearing loss have anything to do with the Multiple Sclerosis? Why/Why not?

Leah, a 20-year-old woman, awakens one morning to a tingling, numb sensation covering both of her feet. This has happened to her a number of times throughout the year. In the past, when experiencing this sensation, within a couple of days to a week the numbness would subside, and so she is not too concerned. About a week later, she notices that the numbness and tingling not only persists, but has also spread up to her knees. Again, she ignores the abnormal sensation. By the end of a month’s time, the numbness spreads to the midline of her body. At this point, she becomes alarmed. Leah sees the nurse at her college who tells her that she should see a doctor. Leah calls her doctor’s office to schedule an appointment, but the soonest slot is in two weeks. She makes the appointment and goes about her daily routine. The next morning, Leah wakes, but when she attempts to get out of bed, she comes crashing to the floor. Because she is still groggy from sleep, she doesn’t really understand what has just happened. As she tries to stand up, the muscles of her left leg engage, but as she also attempts pushing up with her right leg, she again falls to the floor. She sits in bewilderment as she tries to make sense of what has just happened and realizes that she has seriously scraped her knee in her fall. She does not feel the pain from her wound.

Leah thinks about how odd this year has been. She remembers another medical issue she had earlier in the year when she had lost hearing in her right ear and wonders if there is a connection to her current condition. At that time, Leah underwent extensive testing, but the ear, nose, and throat specialist remained baffled. He thought that a severe inner ear infection could have destroyed her ability to hear on that side, but there was no conclusive evidence to support this. In an attempt to recover any hearing, he could, the doctor prescribed very high dosages of steroids; he told Leah that she probably wouldn’t see a change, but there were rare occurrences where steroids helped. To both Leah and her doctor’s surprise, after about a week of steroids, she completely regained hearing in her right ear. It was a “miracle.” Leah wonders whether she can count on a new miracle to heal her current medical issues.

1. What movements are involved in the action of standing up? What major muscles need to contract to perform these actions?

Example: Movements and muscles involved in scratching your nose: Elbow flexion - Biceps Brachii, Shoulder flexion, - Deltoid

2. Are Leah’s medical problems related to her sensory neurons, motor neurons, or both? What in Leah’s medical history supports your answer?

a link between insulin and neurodegenerative diseases has been found. describe the link between insulin and a neurodegenerative disease of your choice? (100 -150 words)

Explain the physiological concept of flow down gradients and illustrate your understanding by presenting three examples from at least two different body systems. In your answer include the terms gradient and resistance.

Need more examples about resistance.

1. a) State the Wolff’s law of the transformation of bone. b) What is the fundamental idea in the trajectorial theory of bone structure? c) Discuss in detail the composition and structure of bone explaining why the different bone tissues are organized differently. d) Explain why the bones of the human body are stronger in resisting compression than tension and shear. e) In the human femur, bone tissue is strongest in resisting compressive force, approximately half as strong in resisting tensile force, and only about one-fifth as strong in resisting shear force. If a tensile force of 8000N is sufficient to produce a fracture, how much compressive force will produce a fracture? How much shear force will produce a fracture?

What is the role of collagen in ligament healing?
What properties of collagen makes it suitable for this role?

Briefly describe 10 specific effects that hormones have on the body.