A. Describe the short-term reflex control of blood pressure, including peripheral receptors, neural control centers, and peripheral effectors.

B. Discuss the details of the mechanisms of respiratory gas transport and respiratory gas exchange (at the lungs and at the tissues), including locations of events and chemistry.

C. Describe how the events of digestive physiology integrated and coordinated together along the GI tract, giving specific examples of these regulatory mechanisms. What is their functional importance?

D. Describe the strategic goals, events and physiological regulation of the absorptive and post-absorptive metabolic states. Discuss the hormonal and neural mechanisms, and the effector targets.

E. Describe the fluid dynamics occurring across capillary walls of the microvasculature, including the relevant osmotic and hydrostatic forces (Starling forces). Why are the lymphatics an important player in fluid homeostasis?

1. Describe the path of sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the urethral opening.

2 Describe the Function

Tail (flagellum)

Midpiece

Head

Acrosome

3 . Describe the functions of testosterone

82) What is the name of the genetic mechanism that allows B cells or T cells to produce specific antibodies?

1. Homeostasis
2. Gene rearrangement
3. Excretion
4. Antigen presentation

83) Which below describes the Humoral Immune Response

A) involves activation and clonal selection of Cytotoxic T cells

B) involves activation and clonal selection of B cells, resulting in production of secreted antibodies

C) Lymphocytes are screened for host reactivity in the Thymus gland

84) Which below describes the Cell Mediated Immune Response

A) involves activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells

B) involves activation and clonal selection of B cells, resulting in production of secreted antibodies

C) Lymphocytes are screened for host reactivity in the Thymus gland

85) Occurs when a pathogen can no longer infect a host because it is bound to an antibody

A) Neutralization

B) Opsonization

C) Excretion

D) Plasmolysis

86) Occurs when antibodies bound to antigens increases phagocytosis of foreign cells by the immune system

A) Neutralization

B) Opsonization

C) Excretion

D) Plasmolysis

87) The process where Antibodies cause lysis of foreign cells is called

A) Neutralization

B) Opsonization

C) Plasmolysis

D) Activation of the complement system

Match the following 3 terms to the description(s) of function(s) below

A) Antigen presentation      B) Antigen switching C) Clonal selection    D) Self screening E) Complement System

110) Pathogens such as Plasmodium evade human adaptive immunity with this mechanism

111) Following antibody/antigen match, a B cell or T cell proliferates with the help of cytokines from a matching Helper T-Cell

112) B cells or T cells with self-reactive antibodies undergo apoptosis

113) A dendritic cell or macrophage stimulates B cells or T cells that have matching antibodies

114) B plasma cell antibodies cause destructions of targets by this mechanism

27) The Hamstring and Quadricep Muscle are examples of

A) Opposing muscles in a muscle group

B) Afferent muscle groups

C) Efferent muscle groups

D) The CNS

35) Which requires energy in the form of ATP

A) Sodium (Na) rushing in

B) Potassium (K) rushing out

C) Activity in the form of the Na/K pump

D) Voltage gated ion channels

E) Potassium channels

Please explain how Rm, Cm, and Ri contribute to the time constant in the length constant of an axon. Can we manipulate Rm, Cm, and Ri? What would we want to change to create the fastest conduction velocity?  

The blood contains numerous components, each with its own function:

Choose a component of the blood, and describe its role in the body.

Your response should be a minimum of 100 words,

with in-text citations and references.  In addition, please respond to at least

two other students to add information, present another point of view, or ask questions.

Performing endurance training 1 hour prior to resistance training (aka concurrent training) may result in the following signaling mechanisms occurring in skeletal muscle:

a. AMPK activating mTOR, resulting in an increase in protein synthesis

b. AMPK inhibiting mTOR, resulting in an increase in protein synthesis

c. mTOR activating AMPK, resulting in a reduction in protein synthesis

d. AMPK inhibiting mTOR, resulting in a reduction in protein synthesis

e. None of the above

Mammals, birds and insects have the ability to produce urine that is hyperosmotic to their bodily fluid; however, insects utilize a more simplistic mechanism. In addition to the final product being the same, there are other stages of urine formation in mammals and insects that is quite similar. Explain

Describe, in order, the events that create a local potential that (a) doesn’t result in an action potential, and (b) does result in an action potential

Once the axon terminal/bouton membrane becomes depolarized, what are the detailed steps that trigger neurotransmitter release and what is the role of calcium?

Q1. Which of the following is TRUE of the absolute refractory period?

Select one:
a) it establishes the maximum frequency with which a nerve cell can conduct action potentials
b) it does not end until the Na+/K+ pump has restored the ions to their original summate
c) two of the above are correct
d) a, b, and c are correct

Q2. In order for a neuron to move from the absolute to the relative refractory period, a majority of that neuron's sodium channels must have their:

Select one:

a) inactivation gates open
b) activation gates closed
c) inactivation gates closed
d) activation gates open and inactivation gates closed

Q3. Which of the following statements concerning propagation of action potentials is TRUE?

Select one:
a) saltatory conduction occurs only in myelinated fibers
b) during the propagation of action potentials, the action potential gets progressively smaller as it moves down the membrane
c) during contiguous conduction, localized current flow causes hyperpolarization of an adjacent portion of the membrane
d) the action potentials can undergo spatial and temporal summation
e) more than one of the above is correct

Q4. Which of the following is NOT true of graded potentials?

Select one:
a) They are produced after the binding of neurotransmitter to receptor
b) they will decrease in magnitude as the current flows away from the initial site
c) they are produced at chemically-gated ion channels
d) they are limited in duration by the refractory period of the membrane

Q5. Assume that a post-synaptic neuron has two pre-syanptic inputs: X and Y. When pre-synapitc neuron X is stimulated, the post-synaptic membrane becomes slightly

Select one:
a) excitatory
b) inhibitory
c) not enough info

Q6. assume that a post-synaptic neuron has two pre-syanptic inputs: X and Y. Given that pre-synaptic neuron X causes hyperpolarization of the post-synaptic membrane, what kind of permeability changes may have occurred in the post-synaptic neuron?

Select one:
a) increase permeability both Ca2+ and K+
b) increased permeability to K+ but not Na+
c) increased permeability to anionic proteins
d) increased permeability to Ca2+
e) increased permeability to both K+ and Na+

Q7. Which type of autonomic receptor is found in the synapse of the parasympathetic postganglionic fiber with the effector organ?

Select one:

a) alpha
b) nicotinic
c) beta-2
d) beta-1
e) muscarinic

Q8. With pre-marathon training, a runner's body adjusts by increasing the amount of acetylcholinesterase. What would be the physiological effect on skeletal muscle fibers?

Select one:

a) it would inhibit the release of Ach from the presynaptic cell
b) it would inhibit the attachment of Ach to muscarinic receptors
c) it would lead to a faster speed of contraction

Q9. Acetylcholine stimulates an action potential in the muscle cell membrane by:

Select one:
a) Opening channels in the neuromuscular junction which allow sodium to move out of the muscle cell
b) Opening channels in the neuromuscular junction which allow potassium to move into the muscle cell
c) Opening channels in the neuromuscular junction which allow sodium to move in and potassium to move out, though sodium moves faster than potassium because both chemical and electrical gradients drive sodium into the cell
e) Opening channels in the neuromuscular junction which allow sodium to move in and potassium to move out, though potassium moves faster than sodium because potassium is closer to equilibrium

Q10. As ATP binds to the myosin head,

Select one:
a) the myosin head detaches from actin
b) the myosin molecule lengthens
c) the myosin head attaches more tightly to actin
d) the myosin molecule shortens
e) the myosin head's actin binding site is physically blocked

Q11. Which type of autonomic receptor is found on the adrenal medullary cells?

Select one:
a) alpha
b) nicotinic
c) beta-2
d) beta-1
e) muscarinic

Q12. Compared to epinephrine, norepinephrine has a greater affinity for what type of receptor?

Select one:
a) alpha
b) nicotinic
c) beta-2
d) beta-1
e) muscarinic

Q13. Phosphocreatine

Select one:
a) provides the muscle cell with a quick energy source
b) removes Ach from the neuromuscular junction
c) blocks the myosin binding site in a relaxed muscle
d) responsible for the release of Ach
e) pumps Ca2+ back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Q14. In twitch summation,

Select one:
a) the muscle fiber is stimulated again before the filaments have completely returned to their resting position
b) stronger muscle contractions occur but stronger action potentials do not uoccur
c) a second action potential occurs in the muscle fiber, before the first action potential is finished
d) both a and b are correct
e) all of the above are correct

Q15. The force generated by a single muscle fiber:

Select one:
a) is always the same
b) can be increased by increasing the frequency of action potentials
c) can be increased by motor unit recruitment
d) more than one of the above is correct

Q16. an isometric(static) muscle contraction:

Select one:
a) muscle tissue shortens
b) muscle tension exceeds the force of the load
c) the load is moved
d) both b and c are correct
e) none of the above is correct

Q17. Which of the following statements concerning the characteristics of different muscle fiber types is FALSE?

Select one:
a) the higher the ATPase activity, faster the speed of contraction
b) muscle fibers containing large amounts of myoglobin have a dark red color in comparison to the paler fibers, which have little myoglobin
c) oxidative types of muscle fibers contain a lot of myoglobin
d) scientific studies have found that, with selective training of a muscle tissue, slow twitch fibers can transform into fast twitch fibers and vise versa
e) in response to weight training, fast twitch fibers increase protein synthesis

what substance does urine normally contain? what substance should not be found in urine?

What role do the kidneys play in the RAAS and BNP system?