Question

1. Discuss the role genetics plays in the development of bipolar 2 disorders.  
2. Explain how the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system may be associated with bipolar type 2 disease.
3. Discuss the role inflammatory cytokines play in the development and exacerbation of bipolar type 2 symptoms
4. Discuss the role of the amygdala in bipolar disorder.
5. How does neurochemical dysregulation contribute to bipolar disorders?
6. What is the status of the use of nutraceuticals in management of depression?
7. What are pnictogens and how do they contribute to the development of panic attack symptoms?
8. How does the GABA-benzodiazepine (BZ) receptor systems contribute to panic attacks/disorders?
9. Describe the areas of the brain that are associated with social anxiety disorder.
10. How is oxytocin associated with anxiety disorder (SAD)?
11. Discuss the role of neurotransmitters in the expression of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).  
12. Explain the structural brain changes that occur in people with GAD.
13. Describe the changes seen in the brain structure in patients with PTSD.
14. Briefly discuss the role glucocorticoids may have on the development of PTSD.
15. What is primary pathophysiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD?
16. Describe the role the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) has in reinforcement of obsessive behaviors.

Answer 1

ANSWERS OF THE FIRST SIX QUESTIONS :

Q1) Discuss the role genetics plays in the development of bipolar 2 disorders.

Ans: Role of genetics in Bipolar Disorder : Bipolar disorder (also known as manic depressive illness) is a complex genetic disorder in which the core feature is pathological disturbance in mood (affect) ranging from extreme elation, or mania, to severe depression usually accompanied by disturbances in thinking and behaviour. The lifetime prevalence of 1% is similar in males and females and family, twin, and adoption studies provide robust evidence for a major genetic contribution to risk.

Q2) Discuss the role inflammatory cytokines play in the development and exacerbation of bipolar type 2 symptoms.

Ans:1) Cytokines are proteins involved in the regulation and the orchestration of the immune response.

2) Proinflammatory cytokines play a central role in inflammatory diseases of infectious or noninfectious origin. PAMPs and DAMPs trigger a cytokine cascade that initially is composed of the proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, IFN-γ, IL-18, and TNF itself).^12,13

Q3) Discuss the role of the amygdala in bipolar disorder.

Ans : Each Amygdala is located close to the hippocampus, in the frontal portion of the temporal lobe. Amygdalae are essential to your ability to feel certain emotions and to perceive them in other people. This includes fear and the many changes that it causes in the body.

Q4) How does neurochemical dysregulation contribute to bipolar disorders?

Ans : 1.Noradrenaline and serotonin have been consistently linked to psychiatric mood disorders such as depression and bipolar disorder.

2.Nerve pathways within areas of the brain that regulate pleasure and emotional reward are regulated by dopamine. Disruption of circuits that communicate using dopamine in other brain areas appears connected to distortions in reality and illogical thought patterns and behaviors.

Q5) What is the status of the use of nutraceuticals in management of depression?

Ans : Nutrients such as fish oil, B vitamins, and vitamin D have all been shown to interact with multiple pathways in our body that are can affect mental illness. These include pathways such as inflammation, an imbalanced gut microbiome (learn more about the gut here), a reduction in the growth of brain cells (also called neurogenesis), and the production of free-radicals. Furthermore, some people might be more susceptible to mental illness because they have in-born errors in some of these pathways which could result in an increased need of certain nutrients in order to prevent malabsorption and/or deficiencies

Q6) What are pnictogens and how do they contribute to the development of panic attack symptoms?

Ans : A panic attack causes sudden, brief feelings of fear and strong physical reactions in response to ordinary, nonthreatening situations. When you’re having a panic attack, you may sweat a lot, have difficulty breathing and feel like your heart is racing. It may feel as if you’re having a heart attack.

Panic disorder can develop when you worry too much about having another panic attack or change behaviors to avoid having a panic attack.

CAUSES OF PANIC ATTACKS :

• Family history: Anxiety disorders, including panic disorders, often run in families. Experts aren’t sure why.
• Mental health issues: People who have anxiety disorders, depression or other mental illness are more prone to panic attacks.
• Substance abuse problems: Alcoholism and drug addiction can increase the risk of panic attacks.