In regards to the respiratory system, research one of the following system afflictions:

-Emphysema

-Cystic fibrosis -

Asthma-

Pneumonia

Write a detailed summary of this affliction. In your summary, be sure to include the following:-What causes the affliction?-How prevalent is this affliction?-Are certain individuals more susceptible to the affliction than others?

Write a description of how blood moves through the body. In your answer, be sure to include the   

       following:

-Involved anatomical structures of the heart

-What role veins, arteries and lungs play in the process

-Description and details of any involved systems or circuits

Human Physiology

1. Describe the pathway of filtrate flow through the urinary system, beginning at the renal corpuscle and ending with elimination from the body. Include in your description the locations where the three major processes occur, and the names and locations of the associated capillaries.
2. Describe the events that lead to micturition (urination), including the effect of the nervous system on the muscles involved.
3. Explain the concept of transport maximum. Under what scenario would glucose appear in the urine?
4. Explain in detail the process that establishes and maintains the medullary osmotic gradient in the kidneys. Then describe the effect this osmotic gradient has on the water in the renal tubules.
5. Explain what conditions stimulate the release of ADH by the posterior pituitary. Then describe in detail the effect of ADH on cells lining the collecting duct.
6. Describe the effect aldosterone and ANP have on sodium levels in the blood.
7. Describe the process by which ingested proteins and carbohydrates are digested, absorbed, and transported into the bloodstream. Then contrast this with the process pertaining to the digestion and absorption of dietary fats (lipids). Include an explanation as to why lipids are processed differently from hydrophilic molecules.
8. Explain the functions of the stomach and describe the features that make it uniquely adapted to its function, including the function of cells located in the gastric pits.
9. Describe the 28-day ovarian cycle (follicle phase & luteal phase), beginning with the development of primary follicles and ending with degeneration of the corpus luteum. Include in your description the role of granulosa cells, theca cells, and the zona pellucida.
10. Describe the pathway that sperm travel during ejaculation, beginning in the testes and ending at the penis. Then name and describe the function of the accessory glands involved in the process.
11. Explain the function of Leydig cells and Sertoli cells in the development of sperm inside the testes.
12. Describe in detail the steps that lead to inflammation, beginning with the introduction of pathogens into a wound, and ending with the formation of a clot. Include in your description the types of cytokines released and the various leukocytes involved. (10 pts.
13. Explain what happens during lymphocyte maturation to ensure B and T lymphocytes do not attack healthy body cells. Include the site of maturation for B cells and for T cells.

Order these steps: When light reaches the rods of vertebrates there is a change in the membrane potential from – 40 mV to – 70 mV. As a result of this hyperpolarization of the photoreceptor, the associated bipolar and ganglion cells fire action potentials. Place these events in order of their occurrence by placing a 1. next to the first event, 2. next ……and, finally a 5. next to the last event.

____Retinal changes from cis to trans configuration

____Bipolar cell no longer inhibited

____Activation of G protein called transducin which decreases amount of cGMP

____Sodium channels close

____Decreased glutamate release

the normal blood supply to the entire GI tract (in chart/table form, with names of arteries and names of corresponding structures)

Describe the fate of aortic arches 1-6, the ventral aorta, and dorsal aorta for each of the following vertebrate groups:

a. Chondrichthyes

b. Actinopterygian (Teleost) fish

c. Sarcopterygian (Dipoan/Lungfish) fish

d. Anurans (larva and adult frogs)

e. Non-avian Reptiles

f. Birds

g. Mammals

When describing these fates, be sure to include whether blood is passing through a gill capillary, lung, or bypassing a respiratory organ altogether. Also mention important blood vessels that form from each aortic arch

Describe the general function of teeth. Diagram the general structure of a tooth. Describe the different kinds of specialized teeth found in mammals. For each type of tooth provide the type of diet it is associated with.

What is the function of the circulatory system? Compare and contrast the structure and functions of arteries, veins, and capillary beds. What is blood pressure and why must it be regulated by the heart and blood vessels? Lastly distinguish the difference between single and double circulation.

Describe how the tissue responds to each of the following stimuli Be sure to include the underlying mechanism—don’t just tell me a stimulus will result in contraction, tell me HOW the stimulus will result in contraction. I will focus on the mechanism on the exam

a. Acetylcholine (Ach)

b. Acetylcholine esterase inhibitor (Physostigmine)

c. Atropine

d. Norepinephrine

e. Elevated extracellular K+

f. K+ inhibitor (Barium Chloride)

The expression patterns of different genes follow different kinetic patterns in response to exercise. Explain how the patterns are different and why? And how are these differing kinetics beneficial to exercise training?

Describe the submucosal plexus below. When it becomes activated what is the major physiological response? When would this plexus be activated?

Integrative Urinary Case Study

While working as a general practitioner, your patient Lamar comes to your office for a standard checkup. Because Lamar is 60 years old and has type II diabetes, you frequently subject him to lab tests to evaluate kidney function, as you know that kidney function can be compromised in diabetics.

Urinary Case Study.01

One type of damage that you are worried about detecting is damage to the endothelial cells of the kidney glomeruli and the podocytes that make up the Bowman’s capsule epithelium. This damage can cause the openings in these tissue layers (e.g., intercellular clefts and other fenestrations) to widen in diabetic patients. Based on analysis of a urine sample from Lamar (urinalysis), which of the following would be the best evidence that such damage has occurred?

A Higher than normal protein levels in the urine.

B Higher than normal Na levels in the urine.

C Lower than normal protein levels in the urine.

D Lower than normal Na levels in the urine.

Urinary Case Study.02

Unfortunately, you detect the evidence of kidney damage that you identified in question #1 from Lamar’s urinalysis results. What effect, if any, do you predict this will have on the osmotic pressure (osmolarity) of his blood plasma?

A It should be higher than normal.

B It should be normal.

C It should be lower than normal.

Urinary Case Study.03

Given the answer to question #2, what should happen to Lamar’s interstitial fluid volume?

A It should be higher than normal.

B It should be normal.

C It should be lower than normal.

Urinary Case Study.04

Why does the answer to question #2 cause the answer to question #3?

A Because Lamar’s TPR is higher than that of a healthy individual.

B Since the osmotic pressure of Lamar’s blood plasma should be the same as that of a healthy individual, it makes sense that his interstitial fluid volume should be normal.

C Because Lamar’s GFR is higher than that of a healthy individual.

D Because the balance of Starling’s forces in Lamar’s systemic capillaries is altered relative to that of a healthy individual.

Urinary Case Study.05

You also detect significant amounts of glucose in Lamar’s urine sample, which is typical in diabetics. What does this tell you about his kidney function?

A His glucose reabsorption rate must exceed his glucose excretion rate.

B His glucose reabsorption rate must exceed his glucose secretion rate.

C His glucose filtration rate must exceed his glucose secretion rate.

D His glucose filtration rate must exceed his glucose reabsorption rate.

Urinary Case Study.06

Since Lamar’s diabetes is very poorly controlled, you decide that you want to prescribe him another anti-diabetic drug in addition to the ones he is already on: a glifozin, which is a class of drugs that inhibit SGLTs (sodium-dependent glucose transporters). These drugs reduce blood sugar through their actions on the urinary system. Why would inhibiting SGLTs reduce blood sugar?

A Inhibiting SGLTs will increase the rate that glucose is reabsorbed by secondary active transport.

B Inhibiting SGLTs will reduce the rate that glucose is reabsorbed by secondary active transport.

C Inhibiting SGLTs will increase the rate that glucose is reabsorbed by primary active transport.

D Inhibiting SGLTs will decrease the rate that glucose is reabsorbed by primary active transport.

Urinary Case Study.07

Before he leaves, you measure Lamar’s blood pressure and find that it is elevated, as it has been over the past few visits. To attempt to get his hypertension under control you decide to prescribe him an ACE inhibitor. How will this drug lower his blood pressure?

A It will cause vasoconstriction of the afferent arterioles feeding the kidney glomeruli.

B It will enhance the activity of Na-K-ATPases in the basolateral membranes of proximal convoluted tubule epithelial cells (causing reabsorption of more Na per unit time).

C It will cause vasodilation of the efferent arterioles exiting the kidney glomeruli.

D It will increase rates of Na and HO excretion via the urine.

Know all of the hormones that have their effects on the kidneys, and what those specific effects are, and know about the hormones and enzyme (Renin) released by the kidneys and their target tissues and effects at the various tissues.

Explain the Length-tension property of a muscle contraction.