Emphysema developed as a result of David’s heavy smoking habit. This makes it so difficult for him to breath and he can’t walk through a shopping center without frequently sitting to rest and “catch his breath”. Describe what is occurring with David’s acid-base balance as related to his damaged alveoli air spaces/emphysema. (5 marks )

Describe what is staging and explain why it is critical to determine treatment and prognosis. Select a type of leukemia to explain and illustrate your answer

Explain Pre-synaptic modulation and give at least one example of where it is used in the nervous system.

Explanation how hydrostatic pressures provide the driving force for the filtration process and identify the functional components of the kidney that contribute to this process.Why can the kidney be considered a endocrine gland and what hormones and their functions originate within components of the nephron? Discriminate between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons.

What is the HPA axis and how does it control cortisol? Please draw a diagram

QUESTION 1

1. The ---------------- of a neuron gather information (from other neurons or from the environment) and turn it into a localized electrical signal called ----------------.

   	A.	dendrites; graded potentials
   	B.	axon terminal; neurotransmitters
   	C.	axon hillock; exocytosis
   	D.	cell body; action potentials
   	E.	axons; graded potentials

2.5 points   

QUESTION 2

1. Sensory neurons are also known as -------------- neurons and relay information toward the CNS. Whereas motor neurons are also known as ---------- neurons and relay information away from the CNS toward the effector tissue.

   	A.	afferent; efferent
   	B.	inter-; efferent
   	C.	inter-; afferent
   	D.	afferent; inter-
   	E.	efferent; afferent

2.5 points   

QUESTION 3

1. The function of myelin is to...

   (Select all correct answers)

   	A.	none of these are correct
   	B.	insulate nerve fibers (axons)
   	C.	phagocytize microorganisms
   	D.	increase transmission speed of action potentials

2.5 points   

QUESTION 4

1. Which of the following is/are true concerning the function of the nervous system? (Choose all that are correct.)

   	A.	integrative function integrates, analyzes, and stores information
   	B.	motor function elicits proper response
   	C.	integrative function detects internal and external stimuli
   	D.	motor function of the nervous system integrates, analyzes, and stores information
   	E.	sensory function of the nervous system detects internal and external stimuli

2.5 points   

QUESTION 5

1. The spaces between myelination are called:

   	A.	oligodendrocytes
   	B.	satellite cells
   	C.	schwann cells
   	D.	nodes of ranvier
   	E.	saltatory conduction

2.5 points   

QUESTION 6

1. During a relative refractory period of an action potential

   	A.	Another action potential can be fired, it just takes a greater stimulus for the membrane potential to reach threshold
   	B.	Na+ channels are either already open or are inactivated therefore the membrane absolutely can not produce another action potential, no matter how intense the stimulus
   	C.	Ca++ flows out of the cell, causing hyperpolarization and a need for a greater stimulus to generate the action potential
   	D.	The presynaptic neuron "tells" the postsynaptic neuron about the "relative" strength of signal
   	E.	None of the above are correct

2.5 points   

QUESTION 7

1. Which ion channel opens/closes in response to a chemical (ex. neurotransmitter, drug, hormone) binding to it?

   	A.	leak channels
   	B.	ligand gated channels
   	C.	voltage gated channels
   	D.	mechanically gated channels

2.5 points   

QUESTION 8

1. A graded potential that moves the membrane potential further away from threshold is:

   	A.	action potential
   	B.	resting membrane potential
   	C.	depolarization
   	D.	hyperpolarization
   	E.	excitation

2.5 points   

QUESTION 9

1. Acetylcholinesterase is:

   	A.	An enzyme present on both the postsynaptic membrane and in the synaptic cleft; it inactivates acetylcholine by breaking it into acetate and choline.
   	B.	An enzyme present in the postsynaptic membrane and in the synaptic cleft which inactivates the catecholamines.
   	C.	An enzyme responsible for making acetylcholine from acetate and choline.
   	D.	An enzyme responsible for converting dopamine into norepinephrine.
   	E.	Two of the above are correct.

2.5 points   

QUESTION 10

1. Rank the following, based on speed of Action Potential conduction (propagation) through the axon, from slowest to fastest.

         -       I.       II.       III.       IV.         

   myelinated axon with a diameter of 20 micrometers

   
         -       I.       II.       III.       IV.         

   unmyelinated axon with a diameter of 10 micrometers

   
         -       I.       II.       III.       IV.         

   myelinated axon with a diameter of 12 micrometers

   
         -       I.       II.       III.       IV.         

   unmyelinated axon with a diameter of 2 micrometers

2.5 points   

QUESTION 11

1. Which of the following is true of the Nodes of Ranvier?

   	A.	They are produced by microglia in the central nervous system and satellite cells in the peripheral nervous system.
   	B.	They are located along the axon of a neuron and have a high concentration of voltage-gated Ca++ channels.
   	C.	They are areas of myelination which prevent loss of charge across the plasma membrane of the neuron.
   	D.	They are located on neuronal axons, at the gaps between myelination. There is a high concentration of voltage gated Na+ channels and voltage gated K+ channels which allow for the production of action potentials at the Nodes of Ranvier.
   	E.	They increase the loss of charge along the plasma membrane of a neuron.

2.5 points   

QUESTION 12

1. Speed of conduction (propagation) of an action potential is increased by:

   	A.	increased diameter of an axon & myelination
   	B.	decreased diameter of an axon & myelination
   	C.	increased diameter of an axon & non-myelination
   	D.	decreased diameter of an axon & non-myelination
   	E.	none of the above

2.5 points   

QUESTION 13

1. Saltatory conduction is:

   	A.	The dissolving of salt (NaCl) into the blood, thereby affecting osmolarity of blood.
   	B.	Synaptic transmission about dietary intake of salt.
   	C.	The way two neurons communicate with each other-- information "jumps" back and forth from one neuron to another neuron.
   	D.	The apparent "jumping" of action potentials from node of ranvier to node of ranvier.
   	E.	A special name for the generation of an action potential down an unmyelinated axon.

2.5 points   

QUESTION 14

1. Which of the following is true of cholinergic receptors:

1. 	A.	Collectively
   	B.	Spatially
   	C.	Chronically
   	D.	Temporally
   	E.	Tonically

2.5 points   

QUESTION 40

1. One neuron synapses onto the dendrite of one neuron. The presynaptic neuron fires one action potential and releases neurotransmitter into the synapse, yet it is not strong enough to generate an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. But, if this presynaptic neuron fires multiple action potentials in a short period of time, the postsynaptic neuron reaches threshold. This process is called --------------.

   	A.	EPSP/IPSP cancellation
   	B.	Temporal summation
   	C.	Chronicle summation
   	D.	Spatial summation
   	E.	Tonical summation

1. What are the body’s nonspecific defenses?

2. What do natural killer cells do?

3. What does interferon do?

4. What are the body’s adaptive defense cells?

5. Where are the T and B cells “born?”

6. Where are the T cells “trained?”

7. Where are the B cells “trained?”

8. What are the two “questions” the T cell asks another cell when it comes into contact with it?

9. Which immune cell would kill an infected cell?

10. Which immune cell responds to antigens in the body fluids?

1. Draw a pressure- volume loop. Indicate the EDV and ESV, where the atrioventricular (bicuspid and tricuspid) valves are open and where the pulmonary and aortic valves are open. Also include the points where systole and diastole begin. Be able to label each section phase 1, 2, 3 or 4 and include the pump cycle name for that phase.

2 The peptides called orexins:

1. Serve as indicators of the body’s total energy stores.
2. Are the “set points” which maintain total energy content.
3. Are intestinal hormones secreted during food digestion.
4. Are powerful appetite enhancers.

1. When Proteins undergo deamination. a substance found in the urine is

1. Steroids
2. Ammonia
3. Acetyl CoA
4. Ketone bodies

2. A condition required for measuring basal metabolic rate is

1. Being in a absorptive state.
2. Being in an upright position.
3. Creating a room temperature between 20 and25 degrees Celsius
4. Sleeoing

3. It is observed that seniors tent to have more side effects from medications this can attribute

1. Failing to take medications as prescribed
2. Skipping meals
3. Not exercising
4. Aging livers become less effective at detoxifying

4. Oxidation Reduction reactions

1. Utilize hydrogenases
2. Require oxidases
3. Are rarely coupled together
4. Occur via the gain of hydrogen or loss of oxygen

5. Under aerobic condition, the complete oxidation of glucose will yield -------------- molecules of ATP

1. 32
2. 34
3. 36
4. 38

1. How to diagnose “brain death”? Please mention the situation of brain death in India and the law associated with it.

2. Please analyze the cause of death of the following case:

A middle aged man suffered by knife cuts with superficial lacerations on the both shouldering, hemorrhage of arms and legs, with fatty embolism and Coronary heart disease, give the cause of death and the evidence of your conclusion.

*4) Which of the following would we expect with a patient with glomerular nephritis? (

A) A filtration pressure of 20 mm Hg due to CHP being elevated

B) A filtration pressure of 20 mm Hg due to GCP being elevated

C) A filtration pressure of 5 mm Hg due to BCOP being elevated

D) A filtration pressure of 20 mm Hg due to BCOP being elevated E) A filtration pressure of 5 mm Hg due to CHP being elevated

6. The daily glomerular filtration rate is equal to

A) 650 L

B) 125 mL

C) 125 L

D) 1176 mL

E) 180 L

29) Which of the following situations would cause the body to increase bicarbonate reabsorption?

A) Increased secretion of urea

B) Hyperventilation

C) Hypoventilation

D) Decreased calcium reabsorption

E) Increased calcium reabsorption

1.How does a patient with diabetes mellitus have hyperglycemia?

2. samples of urine could be an indication of diabetes insipidus with no ketones in urine how can i indicate diabetes insipidus?

3.How would hyperglycemial lead to hyponatremia? my answer: Hyperglycemia causes osmotic shifts of water in your cells from intracellular to extra cellular space diluting causing hyponatremia.