In: Psychology
There are different myths related to memory. One of them is memory is seen as a video camera or tape recorder that accurately records what we experience. But this view of memory is that of layman, it is far more complex.
The storage and retreival of information from the brain is called memory. The recognition and interpretation of information is determined by how we perceive the information and when we recall the information schemas are used. Schemas refers to integrated pattern of knowledge stored in memory that organizes information and guides the acquisition of new information. It is used in everyday life to recognise ways of categorizing things.
To understand memory better different perspective came up. One of the earliest one was Gestalt Perspective, given by Koffka (1935) and Riley (1962). One experiment was done by Wulf (1922) where the subject draw geometrical figures from there memory. The results of this experiment identified two many processes- sharpening and levelling. The latter means exaggeration of characteristics and the former weakning of one more more features. According to Wulf, there are three factors underlying these these two processes- pointing, normalizing and autonomous changes. These are unique to Gestalt Perspective.
Later, the process of memory, according to Frederick Bartlett, requires a collective functioning of perception, imagination and constructive thinking and on previous knowledge and experiences that are derived from various sources. Bartlett coined the term Schemata and the idea that remembering is based on the previously mentioned processes can be attributed to him.
Hitch and Badeley proposed The Atkinson-Schiffrin model of memory is a three-stage model that is comprised of a sensory memory, a short-term memory and a long-term memory. This model of memory as illustrated in figure 1, shows the process of how memories are stored. Baddeley and Hitch however improved upon this model of memory, creating what is called the working memory model. This model as shown in figure 2 has four sections, the central executive (the supervisory system) and three slave systems, the phonological loop (language), visuo-spatial sketchpad (visual semantics) and the episodic buffer (short term episodic memory). The central executive as it is aptly named controls the actions of all the other slave components. The three basic steps in memory are the initial encoding of an episode, the storage of the information and then the retrieval stage where most errors occur, often due to insufficient attention during encoding, or failure to recover the information.
Various other theories are: The schema theory claims the content of what people remember is a combination of the input information and their pre-existing schemas. Any generic understanding of how an event should occur will fill the blanks. Schemas have been proven to affect the connection between input and remembering in several different forms, occurring at different stages in the memory process. Alba & Hasher (1983) identified the effects of five basic types of schema processes. These processes, encoding, abstraction, interpretation, and integration, all occur during encoding, with the exception of reconstruction which occurs during retrieval.
After understanding the basis of memory, now it is easier to understand different types of effect that makes memory inaccurate. The different types are
Selection effect - Selection effects focus more so on the amount of information that is remembered rather than the accuracy. Details of an event that can be incorporated into an active schema have a higher chance of being remembered than information that is irrelevant to the schema. During encoding, the lack of relevant knowledge or a pre conceived schema can dramatically reduce the likelihood the information is to be recalled.
Abstraction effect - event specific details are often lost as they are encoded under the generic schema for an activity. An example of this is the fact that during encoding of information from a text we do not remember a word for word recount, rather the general gist of it. As does selection effect, this incurs a reduction in the amount of encoded and consequently remembered information.
Integration - interpretation refers to actual changes and addition to the input information during encoding. This is where the individual uses schematic knowledge to deduce meaning that goes beyond the actual input event, thus becoming part of the memory and its representation. Interpretation can cause a great deal of interference in recollecting accurately if one from the initial encoding cannot determine the veridicality of the situation.
Various errors are caused because process of giving a probable account of an event rather than the actual reiteration of it. The theory that an event is not simply stored in one place but instead groups fragments or features of the event all over the brain gives some plausibility to the faults inherent in reconstruction.The experience of not knowing whether we dreamed or actually experienced an event is an example of confusion of the source which can lead to misattribution of information that came from an internal imagining to a real life event or happening. It involves clarifying the detail, our familiarity, the vividness of the event and its context to determine its origin
The automobile destruction experiment was designed to investigate the implications of the wording of certain questions, having particular importance in relation to leading questions in the courtroom. After being shown a video of two cars crashing participants were then asked a set of questions, the importance being placed on the speed the vehicles were travelling at. As evidenced in figure 3 the more provocative or aggressive the verb used, the higher the estimated impact speed. This shows how wording can influence the reconstruction of a memory and the judgements made of it. It is evident that memory does not accurately record events like a tape recorder.
There are many factors that influence our memories, some of which we do not fully understand. We must remember that our memories are not concrete; they are impressionable and open to personal bias. Not only does our perception play a dramatic role in memory but the fact that very few people can recall every single action or occurrence in an event accurately shows how much schemas contribute to fill the gaps in memory, often without our conscious knowledge.