Question

describe how the sense of control (primary vs secondary) can change with aging

Answer 1

Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control.

In their life-span theory of control, Schulz and Heckhausen (1996) propose that individuals always strive for primary control but that the ability to change objective circumstances (i.e., primary control) decreases with age due to biological decline and sociocultural constraints. In order to adapt and age successfully, there is an increased reliance on secondary control strategies.

Control beliefs are operationalized with self-assessments using items or statements that focus on rating the degree to which one expects to be able to bring about desired outcomes or to overcome external constraints in order to reach goals, in general or within specific domains and situation.while control beliefs are largely studied in terms of individual differences between persons, there is evidence for within-person changes over both the short- and long-term.

Longitudinal work has provided the opportunity to gain a firmer understanding of the development of control across the lifespan. Although one’s level of perceived control may vary across domains and as a function of sociodemographic characteristics, control beliefs, in general, show a curvilinear pattern over the life course, with a peak in midlife and declines at an accelerated rate in later adulthood.Such declines in perceived control are related to the increasing pervasiveness of age-related obstacles and limitations, such as biological and social changes in available resources (e.g., health, social status, income, and bereavement). This decrease in later life can lead to heightened vulnerability with regard to health and longevity.