Question

1. Describe what is known about the transmission of both Ebola and Coronavirus. You must include in this answer a discussion of the organism itself (i.e. is it a virus, bacteria- what makes it unique).

2. Describe the immune response (both humoral and cell-mediated) to Ebola and Coronavirus that typically occurs (please include a graphic depiction).

3. Discuss the difficulty in creating a vaccine for both Ebola and Coronavirus.

4. Discuss the cultural and lifestyle changes that can reduce transmission of both Ebola and Coronavirus and why these can be difficult to enact.

Answer 1

1/ The Ebola virus is transmitted among humans through close and direct physical contact with infected bodily fluids, the most infectious being blood, faeces and vomit.

The Ebola virus has also been detected in breast milk, urine and semen. In a convalescent male, the virus can persist in semen for at least 70 days; one study suggests persistence for more than 90 days.

Saliva and tears may also carry some risk. However, the studies implicating these additional bodily fluids were extremely limited in sample size and the science is inconclusive. In studies of saliva, the virus was found most frequently in patients at a severe stage of illness. The whole live virus has never been isolated from sweat.

The Ebola virus can also be transmitted indirectly, by contact with previously contaminated surfaces and objects. The risk of transmission from these surfaces is low and can be reduced even further by appropriate cleaning and disinfection procedures.

Ebola virus disease is not an airborne infection. Airborne spread among humans implies inhalation of an infectious dose of virus from a suspended cloud of small dried droplets.

According to current evidence, COVID-19 virus is primarily transmitted between people through respiratory droplets and contact routes.Droplet transmission occurs when a person is in in close contact (within 1 m) with someone who has respiratory symptoms (e.g., coughing or sneezing) and is therefore at risk of having his/her mucosae (mouth and nose) or conjunctiva (eyes) exposed to potentially infective respiratory droplets. Transmission may also occur through fomites in the immediate environment around the infected person. Therefore, transmission of the COVID-19 virus can occur by direct contact with infected people and indirect contact with surfaces in the immediate environment or with objects used on the infected person (e.g., stethoscope or thermometer). airborne transmission may be possible in specific circumstances and settings in which procedures or support treatments that generate aerosols are performed; i.e., endotracheal intubation, bronchoscopy, open suctioning, administration of nebulized treatment, manual ventilation before intubation, turning the patient to the prone position, disconnecting the patient from the ventilator, non-invasive positive-pressure ventilation, tracheostomy, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation

2/ One of the pathogenetic hallmarks of filovirus infection is a pronounced suppression of the immune system. The first targets of filovirions are local macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells.
Several structural proteins of filovirions, in particular VP35, VP40, and VP24, then suppress cellular innate immune responses by, for instance, inhibiting the interferon pathway and thereby enabling a productive filovirus infection. The result is the secretion of copious numbers of progeny virions, as evidenced by high titers in the bloodstream (>106 plaque-forming units [pfu]/mL of serum in humans) and the lymphatics, and dissemination to most tissues. Filovirions then infect additional phagocytic cells, such as other macrophages (alveolar, peritoneal, pleural), Kupffer cells in the liver, and microglia, as well as other targets, such as adrenal cortical cells, fibroblasts, hepatocytes, endothelial cells, and a variety of epithelial cells. Infection leads to the secretion of soluble signaling molecules (varying with the cell type) that most likely are crucial factors in immune response modulation and development of multiorgan dysfunction syndrome. For instance, infected macrophages react by secreting proinflammatory cytokines, a response that leads to further recruitment of macrophages to the site of infection. In contrast, infected dendritic cells are not activated to secrete cytokines, and expression of major histocompatibility class II

Coronaviruses that cause the common cold (e.g., strains HCoV-229E and HCoV-OC43) infect ciliated epithelial cells in the nasopharynx via the aminopeptidase N receptor (group 1) or a sialic acid receptor (group 2). Viral replication leads to damage of ciliated cells and induction of chemokines and interleukins, with consequent common-cold symptoms similar to those induced by rhinoviruses. SARS-CoV infects cells of the respiratory tract via the angiotensinconverting enzyme 2 receptor. The result is a systemic illness in which virus is also found in the bloodstream, in the urine, and (for up to 2 months) in the stool. Virus persists in the respiratory tract for 2–3 weeks, and titers peak ~10 days after the onset of systemic illness. Pulmonary pathology consists of hyaline membrane formation, desquamation of pneumocytes in alveolar spaces, and an interstitial infiltrate made up of lymphocytes and mononuclear cells. Giant cells are frequently seen, and coronavirus particles have been detected in type II pneumocytes. Elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines have been detected in sera from patients with SARS. Because MERS-CoV was so recently detected, little is known at present about its pathogenesis. However, it may well be similar to that of SARS-CoV.
3/ N/A

4/ The recognition of SARS led to a worldwide mobilization of public health resources to apply infection control practices to contain the disease. Case definitions were established, travel advisories were proposed, and quarantines were imposed in certain locales. As of this writing, no additional cases of SARS have been reported since 2004. However, it remains unknown whether the disappearance of cases is a result of control measures, whether it is part of a seasonal or otherwise unexplained epidemiologic pattern of SARS, or when or whether SARS might reemerge. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) maintain recommendations for surveillance and assessment of potential cases of SARS . The frequent transmission of the disease to health care workers makes it mandatory that strict infection-control practices be employed by health care facilities to prevent airborne, droplet, and contact transmission from any suspected cases of SARS. Health care workers who enter areas in which patients with SARS may be present should don gowns, gloves, and eye and respiratory protective equipment (e.g., an N95 filtering facepiece respirator certified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health). Similarly, the WHO and the CDC have issued recommendations for identification, prevention, and control of MERS-CoV infections. Isolation precautions against airborne spread of infection should be instituted for patients hospitalized for suspected MERS, as described above for SARS.

Currently, filovirus vaccines are not available. Prevention of filovirus infection in nature is difficult because the ecology of the viruses is not completely understood. As stated above, frugivorous cave-dwelling pteropid bats (Egyptian rousettes) have been identified as healthy carriers of MARV and RAVV. Avoidance of direct or indirect contact with these bats is therefore useful advice to people entering or living in areas where the animals can be found. Prevention seems to be more difficult in the case of ebolaviruses, for which definite reservoirs have not yet been pinpointed. EVD outbreaks have been associated not with bats but rather with hunting or consumption of nonhuman primates. The mechanism of introduction of ebolaviruses into nonhuman primate populations is unclear. Therefore, the best advice to locals and travelers is to avoid contact with bush meat, nonhuman primates, and bats. Relatively simple barrier nursing techniques, vigilant use of proper personal protective equipment, and quarantine measures usually suffice to terminate or at least contain filovirus disease outbreaks. Isolation of filovirus-infected people and avoidance of direct personto-person contact without proper personal protective equipment
usually suffice to prevent further spread as the pathogens are not transmitted through droplets or aerosols under natural conditions. Typical protective gear sufficient to prevent filovirus infections consists of disposable gloves, gowns, and shoe covers and a face shield and/or goggles. If available, N-95/N-100 respirators may be used to further limit infection risk. Positive air pressure respirators should be considered for high-risk medical procedures such as intubation or suctioning. Medical equipment used in the care of a filovirus-infected patient, such as gloves or syringes, should never be reused unless safety-tested sterilization or disinfection methods are properly applied. Because filovirions are enveloped, disinfection with detergents, such as 1% sodium deoxycholate, diethyl ether, or phenolic compounds, is relatively straightforward. Bleach solutions of 1:100 and 1:10 are recommended for surface disinfection and application to excreta/corpses, respectively. Whenever possible, potentially contaminated materials should be autoclaved, irradiated, or destroyed.
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