Question

what motivated Lasswell and other scholars to call for the creation of a policy science and what are the new developments in social sciences and in political problems, made such a call desirable and possible?

Answer 1

Policy science is a more logical/sensible approach to the process of policy-making. As V. Subramanian characterizes policy science, it is the practical application of all relevant information, in the physical, social and natural sciences, to specific policy problems identified in advance. The initial policy sciences were more problem-oriented, multi-method, contextualized and focused on the uses of scientific research aimed towards an understanding of greater human dignity.

Lasswell promoted policy sciences as a new field of study crucial for the advancement of our society, particularly towards democratic archetype. He describes policy sciences as the pinnacle of efforts to define a discipline for the production and application of "socially relevant knowledge".Lasswell's vision for policy sciences was contextual, multidisciplinary and explicitly normative. The contribution of multiple different ideologies from various scholars has an explicit impact on the evolution and development of policy sciences.

Contextual Perspective

According to Lasswell, policy sciences were more problem-oriented and embraces broad contextual approaches. Towards 1971, Lasswell defined two separate approaches: one focused on knowledge of the policy process and the other focused on the use in the policy process. Lasswell's adopted phrase was: the policy sciences of democracy. To stress on the word 'sciences' appealed to a vision of rational analysts while to stress on the word 'democracy' promoted politicized government processes. This vision, however, provided operational challenges as the policy sciences started gaining academic recognition through the 1960s - 70s. The two approaches - process and content - built up their identities, each aiming to claim certain conceptual superiority. Operationally, these are the two approaches:

1. Policy analysis and
2. Policy process.

Even though having their own utilities and restrictions, it would be unrealistic and in certain cases detrimental to isolate these two approaches.

Multidisciplinary Perspective

Lasswell's approach to policy science is multi-disciplinary in nature. According to him, the policy orientation is two-fold - one is directed towards the policy process and the other towards the intelligence needs of the policy. He strongly recommended that "policy sciences" should not be identified with "applied social sciences" or "applied social and psychological sciences". He went on to mention that policy sciences should also not be deemed as largely identical to what political scientists study. The main stressor, in this approach, is upon the fundamental problems of man in society. However, a few social scientists have constructed an argument towards the root of the policy sciences, mentioning that it may lay within economics.

ExpIicitly Normative Perspective

Policy sciences were normative in their concern with human values as they provide intelligence relevant to the incorporation of values realized by and personified in interpersonal relations. The primary emphasis on values has persisted as the foundation of policy sciences. However, in spite of the clarification provided by Lasswell and Kaplan, the normative aspects of the policy sciences were neglected for three main reasons:

1. some argued that government programs essentially had normative postures,
2. some also claimed that the quantitative techniques were essentially independent of the concerns of ethics or values,
3. some believed that values should be determined by the policy-maker and should not be interfered with by the analysts.

Initially, after presenting his vision, Lasswell faced a backlash and resistance from political scientists and he continued to work on his findings and to implement his vision independent of such political scientists. In the present times, people mostly refer vaguely to the field of public policy when using the term 'policy sciences' and we have long since moved beyond the policy sciences framework and key components.

The new policy sciences

The new format of policy science needs to incorporate analysis and research into one. In a broad understanding, policy analysis provides the study of client-oriented advice in analyzing past policies or recommending new ones for the future. It is mainly designed for the ones participating in the policy process, using decision-making tools that are understood and used by practitioners.

Policy process, on the other hand, can be defined as the study of the patterns and interactions concerning public policy over a period of time. Policy process research is crowded with many theories, that serve as the prime medium in which knowledge is constructed, preserved and advanced. Theories usually are focused on building knowledge about the portrayal of policy systems, subsystems, and decision-making venues.

It would perform three functions:

• widen the spectrum of choice and the people involved
• illustrate how choice takes place in complex contexts
• grasp basic and applied science

One of the primary contributions of the new policy sciences is to promote critical thinking. Scholars can assist the actors in the policy process to ask better questions and equip them with the knowledge to identify their own assumptions and cognitive filters and biases. Moreover, we can dispense with the idea of comparing real-world policymaking with the assumptions of comprehensively rational action for people to be wary of opportunities for them to learn and adapt their strategies to better achieve their goals. In order to make it happen, we are bound to recognize the combined value of basic and applied sciences.