Question

1. How do the proper and improper uses of pesticides and antibiotics inhibit or facilitate the evolution of resistance?
2. What are the costs and benefits to society and ecological systems of pesticide use?
3. What are the ethical and social considerations to be made when choosing whether to apply a pesticide or prescribe an antibiotic?

Answer 1

1. Antibiotic resistance happens when germs like bacteria and fungi develop the ability to defeat the drugs designed to kill them. That means the germs are not killed and continue to grow. Infections caused by antibiotic-resistant germs are difficult, and sometimes impossible, to treat.Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in some way that reduces or eliminates the effectiveness of drugs, chemicals, or other agents designed to cure or prevent infections. The bacteria survive and continue to multiply causing more harm. Similarly in case of pesticides.Pesticide resistance describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest. ... Over 500 species of pests have evolved a resistance to a pesticide.Selection for resistance can occur if a small proportion of the insect population is able to survive treatment with insecticide. These rare resistant individuals can reproduce and pass on their resistance to the offspring. If an insecticide with the same mode of action is repeatedly used against this population, an even greater proportion will survive. Ultimately, the once-effective product no longer controls the resistant population.

2.

Benefits of Pesticides

The primary benefits are the consequences of the pesticides' effects – the direct gains expected from their use. For example the effect of killing caterpillars feeding on the crop brings the primary benefit of higher yields and better quality of cabbage. The three main effects result in 26 primary benefits ranging from protection of recreational turf to saved human lives. The secondary benefits are the less immediate or less obvious benefits that result from the primary benefits. They may be subtle, less intuitively obvious, or of longer term. It follows that for secondary benefits it is therefore more difficult to establish cause and effect, but nevertheless they can be powerful justifications for pesticide use. For example the higher cabbage yield might bring additional revenue that could be put towards children's education or medical care, leading to a healthier, better educated population. There are various secondary benefits identified, ranging from fitter people to conserved biodiversity.

The benefits of pesticides include increased food production, increased profits for farmers and the prevention of diseases. Although pests consume or harm a large portion of agricultural crops, without the use of pesticides, it is likely that they would consume a higher percentage.Due to the use of pesticides, it is possible to combat pests and produce larger quantities of food. By producing more crops, farmers are also able to increase profits by having more produce to sell. Pesticides also increase farm profits by helping the farmer save money on labor costs. Using pesticides reduces the amount of time required to manually remove weeds and pests from fields.

Impact on environment

The high risk groups exposed to pesticides include production workers, formulators, sprayers, mixers, loaders and agricultural farm workers. During manufacture and formulation, the possibility of hazards may be higher because the processes involved are not risk free. In industrial settings, workers are at increased risk since they handle various toxic chemicals including pesticides, raw materials, toxic solvents and inert carriers.

Pesticides can contaminate soil, water, turf, and other vegetation. In addition to killing insects or weeds, pesticides can be toxic to a host of other organisms including birds, fish, beneficial insects, and non-target plants. Insecticides are generally the most acutely toxic class of pesticides, but herbicides can also pose risks to non-target organisms.

3.

Criteria for choosing a pesticide include:

1. Safety is top priority
   Questions to ask include what is the toxicity level of the pesticide (measured by LD50--the higher the LD50 number, the less toxic); how mobile is the pesticide and in what fashion can it be distributed (through air, soil, water, etc.); what is the residual life of the pesticide; and what are the environmental hazards listed on the label?
2. Species specificity
   This is especially important to look for before using toxic chemicals since certain pesticides only affect the target animals or plants. Try to avoid getting broad spectrum pesticides that have potential to kill or harm many beneficial species along with the pest. If such a pesticide is the only option, try doing spot treatments to reduce the likelihood of affecting non-target organisms.
3. Effectiveness
   For pesticides, it is a bit difficult to measure effectiveness because it can vary depending on where the chemicals are being applied. In a lab, for instance, a chemical may kill a large percentage of the target pest because it is a controlled environment, but in a real life situation, the number may be much smaller due to other factors such as killing off natural enemies, temperature changes, etc. Evaluating uses of a considered pesticide in similar situations as that of your school may help in estimating the kind of effect it will have.
4. Endurance
   An animal or plant's endurance to the effects of a pesticide may vary. Watch for success in pest control: if it at first seems to work well but then later populations grow despite continued use, there may be some built up resistance.
5. Pesticides vary in their speeds of interaction
   Choosing a pesticide should be determined based on circumstances. If it is an emergency, a shorter lived, fast acting and more acutely toxic material (such as organophosphate for cockroaches) may be necessary. But a longer lasting, slow acting and less toxic material (such as boric acid) may be better for chronic pest problems.
6. Cost
   This is always a consideration when deciding what chemicals to use. Determination of cost often is done by measuring dollars per volume-some new materials that are effective in lower doses may be more expensive than older pesticides that need larger amounts to do the job. A small container of more concentrated material may seem more expensive, but may be as effective as three times that much in another kind of pesticide.
7. Once a pesticide is selected, notify
   Give notification to personnel, students, and parents about what pesticide will be (or has been) used and where it is going to be (or has been) applied so they are aware of any possible exposure. Ideally applications should be done when buildings are unoccupied, but regardless, it is best to give advanced notice that an application is scheduled so that everyone can take appropriate steps to ensure the safety of those involved.

• In choosing an antibiotic, clinicians should consider the clinical evidence demonstrating that the drug is clinically and microbiologically appropriate, the efficacy of that drug in well-designed clinical trials, and the antibiotic resistance patterns of the local region.

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