Question

What is the difference between associative learning, reinforcement, conditioned stimuli, and discriminative stimuli?

What is the difference between incentive salience and goal-directed behavior?

Question # 8: Compare and contrast the drive theory of drug addiction and the opponent-process theory of drug addiction?

How does animal models of drug self-administration and drug reinstatement related to human models of drug relapse?

How does the nucleus accumbens relates to the theories of drug addiction outlined in the chapter?

Answer 1

• Associative learning, in animal behaviour, any learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus. In its broadest sense, the term has been used to describe virtually all learning except simple habituation.Pavlov's dog and classical conditioning through reward/punishment are examples of associative learning. By definition, associative learning happens when something is learned as a result of being exposed to new stimulus.
• Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur.For example, reinforcement might involve presenting praise (the reinforcer) immediately after a child puts away her toys (the response). By reinforcing the desired behavior with praise, the child will be more likely to perform the same actions again in the future.
• Positive reinforcement involves adding something to increase a response, such as giving a bit of candy to a child after she cleans up her room.
• Negative reinforcement involves removing something in order to increase a response, such as canceling a quiz if students turn in all of their homework for the week. By removing the aversive stimulus (the quiz), the teacher hopes to increase the desired behavior (completing all homework).
• Discriminative stimulus is a term used in classical conditioning as a part of the process known as operant conditioning. A discriminative stimulus is a type of stimulus that is used consistently to gain a specific response and that increases the possibility that the desired response will occur. For example, in an experiment where a rat is being taught to navigate a maze it is easiest to train the rat with a highly desirable treat (such as peanut butter) rather than a less desirable reward such as a piece of broccoli.
• In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.
• For example, suppose that the smell of food is an unconditioned stimulus and a feeling of hunger is the unconditioned response. Now, imagine that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound alone would eventually trigger the conditioned response.In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
• Addiction is defined as a dependency or compulsion towards a particular activity or substance. Usually addictions are harmful, but this can be in different ways.
• Johnson (2013) describes the drive reduction theory in an altered way to the original. He says that drive reduction requires seeking and gratification. When gratification is achieved then seeking is stopped. He goes on to say that addictive drugs change the neurotransmitters in the brain. This has an effect on the seeking part of the brain and the drug addict stays in the seeking stage. This shows the affect a drug has can cause it to become a drive, thus addiction can fit into the model of drive reduction.
• The opponent process theory may explain the emotional and motivational factors behind addiction. It is also possible that better process understanding could lead to improved outcomes for substance abuse treatment.
• An example of the opponent process theory in normal circumstances is being afraid of something. The opponent process theory states that the more a person experiences the fear, the less the fear will affect them. This decrease in fear may continue to the point where the situation is no longer scary. If the stimulus (the thing feared) is no longer a fear, then a second emotion (relief) takes over.
• Drug addiction phenomena can be explained with the opponent process theory. First an addictive event causes a large A reaction, for example, great feelings of joy, with possibly a mild depression as an aftereffect. (This is sometimes called the honeymoon period in an addiction.) But after repeated experiences, the joy is greatly reduced. Tolerance occurs; the body adjusts to the drug. The B reaction becomes stronger. In this case, that means the negative aftereffects of taking the drug, such as bad moods or craving, become stronger. Soon the addictive stimulus is badly needed, because the withdrawal period is intensely unpleasant, yet the drug experience itself is nothing special. That is the end of the honeymoon.
• When a person is addicted to a drug, the drug's pleasurable effects will decrease with time. Eventually, the person gets no pleasure from taking the drug, and the withdrawal (negative effect) response takes over. The person is likely to continue taking the drug to avoid withdrawal (or negative) symptoms.
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