Question

a. Describe the kinase cascade that transmits signals down from the activated Ras protein.

b. Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) is a dimer of two polypeptide chains. How would PDGF monomers affect signaling by the PDGF receptor?

Answer 1

MAP Kinase Pathways

All Ras-linked RTKs in mammalian cells appear to utilize a highly conserved signal-transduction pathway in which the signal induced by ligand binding is carried via GRB2 and Sos to Ras, leading to its activation ,Activated Ras then induces a kinase cascade that culminates in activation of MAP kinase. This serine/threonine kinase, which can translocate into the nucleus, phosphorylates many different proteins including transcription factors that regulate expression of important cell-cycle and differentiation-specific proteins. In this section, we first examine the components of the kinase cascade downstream from Ras in RTK-Ras signaling pathways in mammalian cells. Then we discuss the linkage of other signaling pathways to similar kinase cascades and recent studies indicating that both yeasts and cells of higher eukaryotes contain multiple MAP kinases.

Activation of MAP kinase in two different cells can lead to similar or different cellular responses, as can activation in the same cell by stimulation of different RTKs

2) There are five different isoforms of PDGF that activate cellular response through two different receptors. Known ligands include: PDGF-AA (PDGFA), -BB (PDGFB), -CC (PDGFC), and -DD (PDGFD), and -AB (a PDGFA and PDGFB heterodimer). The ligands interact with the two tyrosine kinase receptor monomers, PDGFRα (PDGFRA) and -Rβ (PDGFRB). The PDGF family also includes a few other members of the family, including the VEGF sub-family

The receptor for PDGF, PDGFR is classified as a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), a type of cell surface receptor. Two types of PDGFRs have been identified: alpha-type and beta-type PDGFRs. The alpha type binds to PDGF-AA, PDGF-BB and PDGF-AB, whereas the beta type PDGFR binds with high affinity to PDGF-BB and PDGF-AB.PDGF binds to the PDGFR ligand binding pocket located within the second and third immunoglobulin domains. Upon activation by PDGF, these receptors dimerise, and are "switched on" by auto-phosphorylation of several sites on their cytosolic domains, which serve to mediate binding of cofactors and subsequently activate signal transduction, for example, through the PI3K pathway or through reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated activation of the STAT3 pathway. Downstream effects of this include regulation of gene expression and the cell cycle. The role of PI3K has been investigated by several laboratories. Accumulating data suggests that, while this molecule is, in general, part of growth signaling complex, it plays a more profound role in controlling cell migration. The different ligand isoforms have variable affinities for the receptor isoforms, and the receptor isoforms may variably form hetero- or homo- dimers. This leads to specificity of downstream signaling. It has been shown that the sis oncogene is derived from the PDGF B-chain gene. PDGF-BB is the highest-affinity ligand for the PDGFR-beta; PDGFR-beta is a key marker of hepatic stellate cell activation in the process of fibrogenesis