Question

In: Anatomy and Physiology

1. Enumerate the steps of gas transfer in the muscles. Elaborate each step. 2. Sequence the...

1. Enumerate the steps of gas transfer in the muscles. Elaborate each step.

2. Sequence the events that transpire in the kidneys during urine formation. Make sure to explain the concepts

3. Give an in-depth correlation on the urinary system and respiratory and circulatory system. Enumerate your answer followed by its corresponding reason/s.

Solutions

Expert Solution

1. Steps of gas transfer in muscles:

  • From the lungs, oxygen is carried by the hemoglobin molecule. One hemeglobin molecule can bind to four oxygen molecules. Oxygen and carbon dioxide gases can easily diffuse across the plasma membrane of tissues.
  • Muscles are highly vascular tissues and muscle fibers are heavily intertwined with tiny capillaries, which supply oxygen to muscle fibers and remove waste products such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid.
  • As oxygenated blood reached muscle cells, oxygen diffuses across the sarcolemma, plasma membrane of muscle cells.
  • The process of gas transfer happens because of Bohr effect- carbon dioxide diffuses into blood stream and red blood cell turns it into bicarbonate ion, and an increase in carbon dioxide levels lowers the pH of blood causing hemoglobin to release oxygen.
  • Once oxygen is diffused into the cell, it has two fates: 1. Bind to myoglobin- a protein that acts like hemoglobin and binds oxygen. Muscles use this protein to store small amounts of oxygen for a later use, OR 2. It can be used in the electron transport chain in mitochondrion to accept H+ ions produced by the oxidation of carbohydrates and fats. It can combine with H+ ions to form water. This process of oxidation produces water, ATP, heat, and carbon dioxide, and it is called internal respiration.

2. Steps of Urine formation in kidneys:

  • Functional unit of kidney is nephrons which contain specialized capillaries called glomerulus. Glomerulus is formed by afferent arteriole and is lined by a space called bowman's capsule where urine is filtered into.
  • The filtration barrier is made up of 3 main components: a. Endothelial cells of glomerular capillaries, b. Glomerular basement membrane, c. Epithelial cells of bowman's capsule called Podocytes.
  • Endothelial cells contain small fenestrations that limit the filtration of cells like RBCs but permit filtration of proteins, large molecules and water. They also contain glycocalyx which hinders diffusion of anions. Podocytes also restrict the filtration of anions.
  • Basement membrane contains type IV collagen, heparan sulfate, proteoglycans which limit anion diffusion and large solute filtration.
  • From the capsule, urine enters proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) which reaborbs all glucose and amino acids, bicarbonate, sodium, chloride, phosphate, potassium, water, and uric acid. PCT also generates NH3 and secretes more hydrogen ions.
  • From PCT, urine enters thin descending loop of Henle, which reabsorbs water into interstitium lined with vasa recta (tiny capillaries). This segment is impermeable to Na+ which makes the urine hypertonic. Parathyroid hormone increases phosphate excretion and angiotensin II increases Na+, H2O, and bicarbonate reabsorption.
  • From thin ascending loop, urine enters thick ascending loop of Henle, which reabsorbs Na+, K+ and Cl-, also induces paracellular reabsorption of Mg+ and Ca2+ though positive lumen potential generated by k+ reabsorption. This segment is impermeable to water so makes the urine less concentrated.
  • From thin ascending loop, urine enters distal convoluted tubule (DCT), which reabsorbs Na+, Cl-. This segment is also impermeable to water which makes urine more dilute (hypotonic). Parathyroid hormone increases Ca2+/Na+ exchange to increase Ca2+ reabsoption.
  • Finally urine enters collecting duct where Na+ reabsorbs in exchange for K+ and H+ regulated by aldosterone. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) acts to insert aquaporin channels on principal cells of collecting ducts to reabsorp water in certain situations like dehydration.
  • From collecting duct, urine enters papillary duct----> minor calyx----> major calyx----> renal pelvis----> ureter----> urinary bladder.

3. Correlation between Urinary, Respiratory, Circulatory system: a. Oxygen and nutrient delivery, b. Acid- base balance, c. Waste removal, d.Blood Volume and Blood Pressure regulation.

  • A. Circulatory system delivers oxygen and essential nutrients to the urinary and respiratory system. It also transports CO2 from the tissues in the form of bicarbonate.
  • B. Acid-base balance: respiratory and urinary systems play a crucial role in regulating pH chnages. They act buffer systems when there is a change in blood pH. During metabolic acidosis or alkalosis when kidneys strive to normalize pH, respiratory system acts as the compensatory system rapidly removing carbon dioxide to increase or decrease blood pH. During respiratory acidosis or alkalosis, urinary system acts as compensatory system quickly excreting bicarbonate to increase or decrease blood pH.
  • C. Waste removal: respiratory and urinary also function to remove waste products such as CO2 (through inhalation), and ammonia, urea, creatinine, excess electrolytes like potassium through urinary excretion.
  • D. Blood Volume and Blood Pressure regulation: urinary system maintains blood pressure in the circulatory system which in turn maintains steady organ perfusion. Kidneys produce renin which increases Na+ and H2O reabsorption to increase blood volume. It increases the sympathetic effects across the body to maintain pressure.

Related Solutions

What is the six step process involved in valuation? List the six steps in sequence, explaining...
What is the six step process involved in valuation? List the six steps in sequence, explaining the importance and relevance of each step.
1-Write all the balanced nuclear equations for each step of thenuclear decay sequence that starts...
1-Write all the balanced nuclear equations for each step of the nuclear decay sequence that starts with U-238 and ends with U-234. Refer to Figure 17.9 for the decay processes involved.2-Name one thing that all types of nuclear reactions have in common and one way in which they are different from each other.
1. Enumerate, and explain, each audit procedure classified according to purpose and according to nature. 2....
1. Enumerate, and explain, each audit procedure classified according to purpose and according to nature. 2. Define external confirmation. Give examples of situations involving external confirmation. 3.What are the different forms of confirmation request? What are the situations where each type may be used? 4. Explain the typical approach followed in performing analytical procedures. 5. Define substantive tests. What are the different types of substantive tests? 6. Differentiate fraud from error.
1 Enumerate 6 factors that may affect desinfectation. 2 Enumerate 5 conditions that favor the Growth...
1 Enumerate 6 factors that may affect desinfectation. 2 Enumerate 5 conditions that favor the Growth of Pathogens. 3 What do you think about Maslow Hierarchy Pyramid of human needs?
Develop and explain each step the general equation of heat transfer by conduction in a constructive...
Develop and explain each step the general equation of heat transfer by conduction in a constructive way starting from an element general differential in the cartesian coordinate system and then reduce to get: 1) Laplace's equation (in R3) Δ? = 0 2) The Poisson equation (with constant thermal conductivity ?) Δ? + ? '''= 0 Δ is the Laplacian operator and ? ''' is a source term. Note: start the analysis from a differential element with volume ??????. Make a...
1. What are the eight steps to inclusion? Explain each step in more detail, specifically outlining...
1. What are the eight steps to inclusion? Explain each step in more detail, specifically outlining what each step is supposed to do. 2. Do you believe this eight-step plan would work? Why or Why not?
1. Please explain which rules of calculus lead from step 1 below to steps 2 and...
1. Please explain which rules of calculus lead from step 1 below to steps 2 and 3, and from step 3 to step 5: Step 1: RSS = sum from i = 1 to n (yi - b0 - b1xi)^2 Step 2: deltaRSS/deltab0 = (- 2) sum from i = 1 to n (yi b0 - b1xi) = 0 Step 3: deltaRSS/deltab1 = (- 2) sum from i = 1 to n (xi(yi - b0 - b1xi)) = 0 Step...
1. Why are the pre-bake and post-bake steps used in the photoresist process sequence 2. Why...
1. Why are the pre-bake and post-bake steps used in the photoresist process sequence 2. Why do we keep calcium gluconate in the laboratory?? 3. Why are the overhead lights in the lithography room yellow??
The following are all the steps in the accounting cycle. Number each step in the order...
The following are all the steps in the accounting cycle. Number each step in the order in which they should be done. Please write your answer in the space provided. - Closing entries are journalized and posted to the ledger. - An unadjusted trial balance is prepared. - An optional end-of-period spreadsheet (work sheet) is prepared. - A post-closing trial balance is prepared. - Adjusting entries are journalized and posted to the ledger. - Transactions are analyzed and recorded in...
what are the six steps of a statistical inverstgation? describe each step in context of the...
what are the six steps of a statistical inverstgation? describe each step in context of the organ donor example.( in your own words)
ADVERTISEMENT
ADVERTISEMENT
ADVERTISEMENT