Question

1. How is IgE involved in allergic reactions?
2. Outline the basic steps that turn a B cell into a plasma cell.
3. Discuss differences in the primary and secondary antibody responses.
4. What signals are needed to activate helper T cells?

Answer 1

Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a type of antibody that has been only found in mammals, synthesised by plasma cells. IgE main function is immunity to parasite and also has an essential role in type I hypersensitivity which manifests in various allergic disesases.

IgE synthesis pathway and mediated allergic/inflammatory pathway are all important targets in intervening with the pathological processses of allergy and other IgE mediated diseases

*Primary immune respose occurs when an antigen comes in contact to the immune systemfor the first time and the secondary immune response occurs when the second time or the next time the person is exposed to the same antigen. The secondary response is different from the primary response, antigen-specific T cells are selected during a primary immune response and expand to produce clones of T cells with high specificity for the activating antigen. In a secondary response to the same antigen, memory cells are rapidly activated. This process is quicker and more effective than the primary response.

The immune system protects organisms from infection first with the innate immune system, then with adaptive immunity.

When B cells and T cells are first activated by a pathogen, memory B-cells and T- cells develop. Throughout the lifetime of an animal these memory cells will “remember” each specific pathogen encountered, and are able to mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. This type of immunity is both active and adaptive. Active immunity often involves both the cell-mediated and humoral aspects of immunity as well as input from the innate immune system.

secondary response: the immune response occurring on second and subsequent exposures to an antigen, with a stronger response to a lesser amount of antigen, and a shorter lag time compared to the primary immune response

primary response: the immune response occurring on the first exposure to an antigen, with specific antibodies appearing in the blood after a multiple day latent period

adaptive immunity: the components of the immune system that adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and are able to generate pathogen-specific immunity.

Adaptive (or acquired) immunity creates immunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen, leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination.

Figure: The Time Course of an Immune Response: Immune reactants, such as antibodies and effector T-cells, work to eliminate an infection, and their levels and activity rapidly increase following an encounter with an infectious agent, whether that agent is a pathogen or a vaccine. For several weeks these reactants remain in the serum and lymphatic tissues and provide protective immunity against reinfection by the same agent. During an early reinfection, few outward symptoms of illness are present, but the levels of immune reactants increase and are detectable in the blood and/or lymph. Following clearance of the infection, antibody level and effector T cell activity gradually declines. Because immunological memory has developed, reinfection at later times leads to a rapid increase in antibody production and effector T cell activity. These later infections can be mild or even inapparent.

Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer. Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. In humans, immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease such as severe combined immunodeficiency, acquired conditions such as HIV/AIDS, or the use of immunosuppressive medication. In contrast, autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system.

The immune system protects organisms from infection with layered defenses of increasing specificity. In simple terms, physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the organism. If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all plants and animals. If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an immunological memory, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered. Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non- self molecules. In immunology, self molecules are those components of an organism’s body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. Conversely, non-self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (short for antibody generators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response.

When B cells and T cells are first activated by a pathogen, memory B-cells and T- cells develop. Throughout the lifetime of an animal these memory cells will “remember” each specific pathogen encountered, and are able to mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. This type of immunity is both active and adaptive because the body’s immune system prepares itself for future challenges. Active immunity often involves both the cell-mediated and humoral aspects of immunity as well as input from the innate immune system. The innate system is present from birth and protects an individual from pathogens regardless of experiences, whereas adaptive immunity arises only after an infection or immunization and hence is “acquired” during life.

*Signals needed to activate helper T cells: Helper T cells do not directly kill infected cells, as cytotoxic T cells do. Instead they help activate cytotoxic T cells and macrophages to attack infected cells, or they stimulate B cells to secrete antibodies. Helper T cells become activated by interacting with antigen-presenting cells.