Question

A 3-page paper on some aspect of current science or technology. Papers should be double-spaced, using 12-point type.

* Dynamics writing assignment.

Answer 1

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY AND ITS IMPACT ON AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

Abstract: Fuel cells are recognized as future of energy technology and power generation system. Fuel cells underpin the conversion of chemical energy into electricity through chemical reactions. Most commonly, fuel cells make use of Hydrogen gas as input which is extracted from various processes like steam reforming, CO2 sequestration, electrolysis etc. These processes involve energy consumption and emission at various stages. To study and analyze these parameters, a complete statistical data of environmental impacts associated with fuel cell over the course of its entire process, from extraction of fuel, refining, operation, energy conversion, transmission and finally the disposal. This is the first step in analyzing the impact of fuel cells. This paper reviews the life cycle analysis study on hydrogen fuel cell technology. The paper also investigates environmental payment of various components and processes during the pre-production stage. The second stage would focus on changes in scenario after the production of fuel cell vehicles, i.e. in running condition. The market feasibility, consumer popularity & reliance, energy feasibility and environmental consequences come under this stage. After studying these factors thoroughly, a fine line can be drawn between the energy potential of fuel cells and actual feasibility. This paper aims at leading to an optimum equilibrium between efficiency, emissions and corporate profitability of hydrogen fuel cells. Such an approach, in particular, needs the support of both, environmental and engineering informatics which has been meticulously reported in this paper.

Keywords: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology, Life Cycle Assessment, Global Warming Potential.

1. INTRODUCTION:

Developing an alternate renewable energy source and transforming it into an economically viable and potent source is one of the biggest challenges of mankind today. The swiftly depleting fossil fuels, uneconomical and largely difficult to implement renewable energy resources have invited researchers to invest in the idea of complementary power sources. Hydrogen fuel cell, due to it’s natural characteristics, experimental results and efficiency has been a point of interest as an alternative fuel. But, there are certain difficulties with using Hydrogen fuel as prime energy source in automobiles. One of them is certainly the cost while other one is its underlying effect on environment; its impact on Global Warming, acidification, ect. We need to study this and quantify from experimental results to posit some substantial inferences about impact of Hydrogen Fuel Cell on automobile industry.

1. HSTORY:

The first occurrence of hydrogen fuel cell dates back to 1838. Welshman researcher William Grove wrote about the development of his first crude fuel cells and published it in The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, December 1838 edition. His methods consisted of a combination of sheet iron, copper, porcelain plates and a solution of copper sulphate and dilute acid. Later in 1839 Christian Friedrich Schönbein put forth the crude fuel cell for the first ever time. He experimented and wrote about the electric current generated from Hydrogen and Oxygen dissolved in water. Later in 1842, William Grove published his new design of fuel cell in the same journal. That new design carries a huge resemblance to the PAFCs used nowadays. Almost a century later, a 5kW stationary fuel cell was developed by a British researcher Francis Thomas Bacon. This was the time period when fuel cell began grabbing attention and a wave of modifications for optimization began. Being an implication of this ravenousness towards the intriguing way of deriving useful power from the chemical energy of ions, in 1955, Thomas Grubb developed a successful model of fuel cell using sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte. Three years later, Leonard Niedrach mechanized a way to integrate platinum onto membranes that served as a catalyst for oxidation reaction of Hydrogen as well as oxygen reduction. This fuel cell became famous as “Grubb-Niedrach” fuel cell, being named after the two pioneers who worked for General Electric (GE) firm in those days. GE later collaborated with NASA and used this technology in several important projects, one of them being “Project Gemini”. In 1959, following the trend of innovations, Harry Ihrig built a 15kW fuel cell, increasing the power threefold. This was the necessary boost required to spur the invention of fuel cell technology in automobile applications. In 1991, Roger Billings, successfully developed the first hydrogen fuel cell automobile, thus expanding the reach of technology beyond the preset horizons.

1. TYPES of FUEL CELLS

1. Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) were first designed and introduced in 1961 by G. V. Elmore and H. A. Tanner. In these cells phosphoric acid is used as a non-conductive electrolyte to pass positive hydrogen ions from the anode to the cathode. A key disadvantage of these cells is the use of an acidic electrolyte. This increases the corrosion or oxidation of components exposed to Phosphoric acid.

1. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)

In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton exchange membrane fuel cell design, a proton-conducting polymer membrane (the electrolyte) separates the anode and cathode sides. This was called a "solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton exchange mechanism was well-understood.

1. Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell (Bacon Cell)

The Bacon Cell found its biggest application in Apollo Space Program as the most imperative source of electrical energy. It consists of two carbon electrodes which are porous and impregnated with Platinum or Silver acting as catalysts. The bubbles of Hydrogen and Oxygen are passed through these electrodes into the electrolyte, which is a solution of conc. KOH or NaOH. The net reaction thus yields water upon amalgamation of the two elements bubbled into electrolyte. Bacon Cell operates efficiently in the temperature range of 343K-413K and provides potential difference of 0.9V.

1. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)

SOFCs use a solid material, most commonly a ceramic material called yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), as the electrolyte. Because SOFCs are made entirely of solid materials, they are not limited to the flat plane configuration of other types of fuel cells and are often designed as rolled tubes. They require high operating temperatures (800–1000 °C) and can be run on a variety of fuels including natural gas.

SOFC systems can run on fuels other than pure hydrogen gas. However, since hydrogen is necessary for the reactions listed above, the fuel selected must contain hydrogen atoms. For the fuel cell to operate, the fuel must be converted into pure hydrogen gas.

1. CONCEPT of FCV

The Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicles are rudimentarily electric cars since they utilize the chemical energy to produce electrical energy which drives the motor to complete the required motion. Though, the Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles run entirely on electrical energy, certain parameters like refueling are analogical to the conventional cars and trucks. These fuel cell vehicles combine hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity.

In Hydrogen fuel cells, when hydrogen is converted into water to produce electricity, heat is released as a byproduct. This reduces the pollution caused by emissions in conventional vehicles. But, producing the Hydrogen can itself be accounted as a source of pollution, which is also emitted from conventional vehicles. But, in Fuel Cell Vehicles, the total emission is reduced by 30% as compared to conventional vehicles.

As mentioned above, refueling in both the cases is same and undergoes same procedure. At filling stations, pressurized Hydrogen is sold, which can be used to generate the electrical energy in fuel cell. The range is an independent parameter and depends completely on the vehicle. The combination of fast centralized refueling and longer driving ranges make fuel cells particularly appropriate for larger vehicles with long distance requirements.

The downside, at least for a while, is that although hydrogen is the most abundant molecule in the universe, hydrogen-dispensing pumps, and the supply chains that feed them are still almost nonexistent.

1. ADVANTAGES:

• Readily available

As fuel is created from oil, the future for fuel looks quite bleak. We don't just use oil for fuel; we also use it to create plastics, pharmaceuticals and a range of manufacturing materials. Therefore crude oil is a great resource for the human planet, but unfortunately we are using it at an astronomical rate. Specialists predict that one day the earth will stop being able to produce enough oil to keep up with our energy needs. This could lead to all oil resources drying up and the world running out of oil. The futurologists have always stated that before fossil fuels like petrol and diesel get depleted the human race must be capable enough of using alternative resources and means to generate these shall be easy and straightforward.

Clearly fossil fuel reserves are finite- it's only a matter of time when they run out- not if. Globally- every year we currently consume the equivalent of over 11 billion tons of oil in fossil fuels. Crude oil reserves are vanishing at the rate of 4 billion tons a year- if we carry on at this rate without any increase for our growing population or aspirations, our known oil deposits will be gone by 2052.

We'll still have gas left, and coal too. But if we increase gas production to fill the energy gap left by oil, then those reserves will only give us an additional eight years, taking us to 2060. But the rate at which the world consumes fossil fuels is not standing still, it is increasing as the world's population increases and as living standards rise in parts of the world that until recently had consumed very little energy. Fossil fuels will therefore run out earlier.

It's often claimed that we have enough coal to last hundreds of years. But if we step up production to fill the gap left through depleting our oil and gas reserves, the coal deposits we know about will only give us enough energy to take us as far as 2088. And let's not even think of the carbon dioxide emissions from burning all that coal. So does 2088 mark the point that we run out of fossil fuels?

Thus, the fact that we need to start our hunt for alternative energy sources has become bolder than ever. It's no more a complex myth that we all hide our faces from, but a bitter reality that waits to be addressed. In this scenario, hydrogen fuel cells will play highly significant role, given their advantages and the mankind's desperate need to find an alternative.

Since, automobile industry is hugely dependent on fossil fuels; the impact of hydrogen fuel cell technology in this sector can be very presciently stated as hugely beneficial. It will lower the dependence on fossil fuels and as well as ease the burden on other alternatives like biodiesel. Moreover, the pragmatic feasibility of hydrogen fuel cells is remarkable which makes it a huge boon for automobile industry if it wants to persist and burgeon in coming decades.

• Eco-Friendly

Hydrogen is abundantly available in atmosphere, and it is non-toxic gas. Hydrogen gas has a potential to generate and secure our future energy supply and make it more environmentally friendly. Hydrogen has been used as an industrial gas for over one hundred years and large scale are used across the widest range of applications every day. Hydrogen is also set to play a defining role in the much-publicized third, 'green' industrial revolution. It is the most commonly occurring element in nature and – unlike fossil fuels such as crude oil or natural gas – will never run out. Like electricity, hydrogen is an energy carrier – not a source of energy. It must therefore be produced. Yet hydrogen offers several key benefits that increase its potential to replace fossil fuels. Stored hydrogen, for example, can be used directly as a fuel or to generate electricity.

Hydrogen will enable regenerative, sustainable mobility choices in our everyday lives. Such vehicles have a long-distance range and can be rapidly fuelled. Many years of research, development and testing have shown that hydrogen technology is a workable, economically achievable alternative suited to mass deployment. There is still a long way to go before broad scale commercialization. Nevertheless, today’s conventional method of using steam reforming to generate hydrogen from natural gas already reduces carbon dioxide emissions along the entire value chain, from well to wheel. Hydrogen-powered vehicles emit up to thirty percent less CO2 than modern diesel cars.

Hydrogen produces no air pollutant or greenhouse gases when used in fuel cells; it produces only nitrogen oxides (N0x) when burned in ICEs. Nowadays Solar energy is also used for the production of hydrogen. Solar hydrogen gives the greatest potential at this time for pollution free, and renewable energy. The primary methods of hydrogen production today, while representing a very small fraction of the total scale of hydrocarbon pollution worldwide, nevertheless contribute further carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, as well as sulphur dioxides that causes acid rain. In contrast, solar hydrogen applications promise an unending source of clean usable energy along with the benefits of non-polluting collection. As current methods further deplete diminishing fossil fuel resources, solar hydrogen will use the limitless power of the Sun to manufacture hydrogen from sea water, recycled water, and even from the garbage that threatens to overflow landfills worldwide.

Other than solar hydrogen, there are several other extraction technologies being studied for their potential to produce hydrogen on a massive scale while still maintaining the integrity of our environment. This would allow remaining hydrocarbon fuel sources to be used for purposes other than energy use, such as the manufacture of plastics, synthetic fibers like nylon and polyester, and other durable goods.

The cost of producing the electricity to extract hydrogen has been a stumbling block on the path toward greater availability of hydrogen as an energy resource. One potential solution to this problem is solar generation of electric power to fuel the electrolysis process, described technically as photo electrochemical technology, facilitated either by solar gensets or photovoltaic solar panel stacks. Another possible solution is the linking of hydrogen production and hydroelectric power, which has the lowest cost associated with producing electricity on the scale necessary to manufacture hydrogen for industrial as well as energy uses. Other emerging renewable technologies such as wind generation and tidal wave energy are also possibilities that may have application in this area in the future.

Balance of plant, stack for 108/KW Energy consumption.

               In this chart we can observe that the cost of fuel cells have decreased significantly, the cost for a fuel cell system is almost double that of an internal combustion engine.

            A study by Directed Technologies, Inc. for the DOE estimated the lowest production costs for an FCV with an 80 kilowatt (kW) system with production levels of 500,000 systems a year. The study found that current costs for a fuel cell system (in 2010) are approximately $51/kW, close to the DOE target of $45/kW. For 2015, the study projected that costs would decrease to $39/kW by 2015. The DOE goal for that year is $30/kW. In addition to system costs, the costs of hydrogen storage are still much higher than the target set for commercialization, which is $2 per kilowatt-hour (kWh). Currently, onboard storage costs are $15-18/kWh, depending on the level of storage pressure.

Overall vehicle costs are also substantially higher than that for conventional vehicles. Toyota has announced plans to sell an FCV in 2015 for $50,000, approximately two times that for a comparable conventional vehicle. In a 2008 study, the NAS estimated the average cost of an FCV from 2008 to 2023 at $39,000 per vehicle, including research, development, and deployment (RD&D) costs. A study by MIT that examined energy and environmental impacts of fuel and vehicle

l with such environmental issues as impacts to and relations with the global warming, the waste problem, and the problem of hazardous substances. In addition, obviously we need a win-win situation between environment and corporate profitability. Therefore, one should examine various aspects of the environmental issues as well as performance of the product, deal with a huge amount of data, and make critical decisions based on uncertain data and unreliable future prospect to achieve a balanced design solution. This is the domain where environmental informatics may play a crucial role, since engineering informatics aims at supporting knowledge-intensive engineering tasks from initial conception to product disposal.

The LCA of fuel cell vehicles can be carried out in two stages, viz. vehicle cycle and fuel cycle.

Vehicle Cycle contains following points:

1. Vehicle Material Production

The production of Gas Diffusion Electrode (GDE) along with catalyst, production of membrane, combining of GDE and membrane, assembly of stack and manufacturing of other materials total comprise vehicle material production. For each step, the material input, transmission and process losses and emissions were determined.

Same analysis is done for other stages like vehicle assembly, vehicle distribution, vehicle maintenance, vehicle disposal, etc.

Fuel Cycle contains following points:

1. Feedstock production:

Feedstock production takes into consideration the energy interactions during production of input feedstock material that is Hydrogen. It is recommended to use renewable methods.

1. Feedstock Transportation:

Transporting the feedstock from generation area to application are also incurs several losses. These losses are filed under this category.

1. Fuel Production: Crude oil and natural gas are the main energy commodities used in these processes. The production of gasoline from crude oil is seen to be more efficient than the production of hydrogen from natural gas Hydrogen production via wind power and electrolysis has the lowest indirect fossil fuel energy use. The photovoltaic system has the highest fossil fuel energy embodied in materials and equipment.
2. Fuel Distribution: The distribution of compressed hydrogen after its production via natural gas reforming is similar to that for liquid gasoline, but compressed hydrogen is characterized by a lower volumetric energy capacity and higher material requirements for a hydrogen storage tank.

1. RESULTS:

The above figure shows inventory and impact assessment results. It shows the quantitative emission values of all the elements. Thus we can analyze this data and compare with Gasoline fuels only to realize that gasoline emissions have even worse impact on environment. The emission values are then deduced to a single numerical value called Global Warming Potential (CO2 equivalent) and Acidification (SO2 equivalent).

It can be seen from the graph above that energy consumption is significantly less in case of Hydrogen- Solar. This signifies the importance of renewable methods in feedstock production.

in ICE and PEMFC vehicles, respectively

The Greenhouse Gas emissions are significantly less in Hydrogen Solar and wind method while those is Gasoline vehicles is quite high. This gives a quantified idea about impact of both the technologies on environment.

Hydrogen as Fuel

This table shows the results of HFC vehicle after being driven for 1km. As we can see Global Warming Potential is 102694, which is mathematically still lesser by 20000 than Gasoline vehicles. Similarly acidification caused by Gasoline vehicle is quite high. Thus it can be inferred that Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles have less adverse impact on environment.

1. CURRENT SCENARIO-

It all started with the ambitious statement made by the United States Ex-President George Bush wherein he claimed that his government would invest an amount of almost 1.2 billion US dollars for the research and development on Hydrogen. The motives behind this bold investment were to reduce the country’s dependence on foreign oil and to save the day to day toxic gas emissions in the atmosphere. It is after this major investment in the field of hydrogen that automobile companies like Toyota, Honda, Hyundai, Nissan, Tesla, and many other began actively doing research in this field. One way in which Hydrogen could be effectively used and utilized was its obvious replacement as an automotive fuel. In the year 2003, Honda, A Japanese automotive company, showcased the first prototype of the FCX CLARITY at the Detroit motor show. It claimed the car to be a zero emission environment friendly car. Also Tesla, another major name in the automotive field which deals with electric cars had also come up with a similar car. Later in the year 2008, Honda fulfilled its promise by launching the FCX Clarity car at the Tokyo motor show. The car was not for sale, it could only be leased, since it was under research. The car which Honda claimed to be environment friendly was not at all customer friendly because of its cost and absence of refueling stations. As far as HFC vehicles are concerned, Honda has not been the sole victim in this particular regard.Tesla also had to install its independent refueling stations for its cars. South Korean automaker Hyundai Motor .Co which joined Toyota and Honda in demonstrating a HFC vehicle at the Tokyo Motors Show, has said in the past it would have 1,000 HFC vehicles out and about at some point somewhere around 2012 and 2015. Presently it has downsized those aspirations and says it will take after Honda's lead by presenting the Tucson Fuel Cell under a Southern California lease program. At last, considering the upcoming ordeal challenges many leading automotive companies had to scale back its ambitions.

A year ago, some automobile industry delegates were talking strikingly at a hydrogen fuel gathering in Toronto about HFC autos in merchant showrooms by this year. Recently there was news about the HFC vehicles back in the market. While both Honda Motor Co. Ltd. And Toyota Motor Corp. Have long been focused on the innovation, which draws power from a substance response in the middle of oxygen and hydrogen to control an electric engine, the course of events appears to be goal-oriented considering the difficulties .Honda revealed its most recent HFC test at the Los Angeles engine demonstrate, the FCEV idea auto, which it says will be the premise for a business vehicle it expects to offer in the U.S. inside of two years. Not to be outmatched, Toyota said a week ago its FCV idea auto, a four-sweater vehicle, would be accessible in the commercial center by 2015.A year ago, the German creator of Mercedes-Benz, Daimler opened a hydrogen energy unit segment plant in British Columbia and this year banded together with Renault-Nissan to put up a HFC vehicle for sale to the public as right on time as 2017 so plainly automakers are pushing ahead in spite of the difficulties.

Any automaker that plans to mass market a retail-level HFC vehicle will confront the same test Tesla Motors Inc. has had: tending to the absence of powering outlets. Will Honda or whatever other automaker need to take after Tesla CEO Elon Musk's lead by building their own particular hydrogen filling outlets? An outsider private segment engineer isn't prone to venture forward until interest for hydrogen is sufficiently high to bolster an industry. The administration will assuredly need to assume a part in incentivizing the framework meanwhile. Be that as it may, the industry isn't laying on its trees. In the event that HFC autos are a suitable option for the fate of driving, automakers need to arrange well ahead for its selection. All things considered, it can take years to transform a specialized idea into a mass-delivered machine, and makers that don't predict the selection of the new innovation will invest years playing look up some other source.

1. CONCLUSIONS:

LCA is a very challenging approach sine it has to deal with huge amount of uncertain data and unpredictable future views. We have to consider engineer informatics as well as environmental informatics for completing this task. From LCA, we can conclude that the fuel production has more impact on environment than utilization. So, to positing from future perspective, right now, the HFC vehicle technology concept is extremely potent yet economically bleak. There is not nearly enough being done now. Action must be taken immediately by all groups, those who support use of renewable sources and those who don’t, in order to make this fuel source viable and prevent the economic implications previously mentioned. The efforts, agendas or future planning must be a collaboration between, government, universities, national research laboratories etc. in order for this to be viable

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