Question

1. Glycolysis is an almost universal pathway for extraction of the energy available from carbohydrates, shared among prokaryotes and eukaryotes, aerobes and anaerobes alike. Base on what you have learnt and your best understanding towards the mentioned process, investigate the direct and indirect glycolysis as well as give concrete examples, where possible.

4. Why does human body require a certain amount of carbohydrates in daily diet? Exemplify case by case.

5. The citric acid cycle is a central metabolic pathway that completes the oxidative degradation of fatty acids, amino acids, and monosaccharides. Base on your understanding, clarify the above statement.

6. Show your understanding and figuring out the oxidative phosphorylation of utilizing the chemical energy of those reduced molecules from glycolysis and Citric Acid Cycle to produce ATP.

7. Show your understanding and exemplifying the roles of NADPH in the all related issues of concern.

Answer 1

4)Carbohydrate is one of the macronutrients that we need, primary source for energy. carbohydrates have  two types; simple and complex.

1. simple carbs chemical have one or two sugar molecules linked together are called sugars.
2. Complex carbs consist of starches and fiber. Fiber cannot be digested by the human body. they deliver energy more steadily and help keep blood sugar levels more stable.

Both simple and complex carbs break down into glucose (blood sugar) in the body. simple carbs are shorter and  they generally break down faster, leading to quicker release in the body.

The glucose from carbohydrate is converted into the energy by glycolysis . this energy used for brain and muscles function. if carb foods not present in diet, it may develop a nutrient deficiency or constipation in body.

sources of carbohydrate

• whole grains, like barley, bulgur, buckwheat, quinoa, and oats
• Brown rice
• Vegetables
• Beans, lentils, and dried peas
• Whole-grain cereals. etc

5) The citric acid cycle is a central metabolic pathway that completes the oxidative degradation of fatty acids, amino acids, and monosaccharides. It perform aerobic metabolism of any molecule that can be transformed into an acetyl group.The function of the citric acid cycle is the harvesting of high-energy electrons from carbon fuels.It is highly efficient because a limited number of molecules can generate large amounts of NADH and FADH2. It generate ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

6) glycolysis, the citric acid cycle produce the reduced coenzyme NADH. NADH contains electrons that have a high transfer potential. electrons are transferred from electron donors to electron acceptors such as oxygen. electron transport system use the energy released from the oxidation of NADH to pump protons across the inner membrane of the mitochondria which is used to form ATP.

7) NADPH is  high energy electron carrier which plays the role of producing energy by yielding ATP molecules in the electron transport chain (ETC) after being generated during glycolysis and TCA cycle. Two NADPH are produced during glycolysis ( conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA) and Six during the TCA.