Question

Social structure of different indigenous populations and economy before contact.

Answer 1

SOCIAL:
By definition, the indigenous peoples of northern Russia (including the indigenous peoples of the Arctic area) occupy remote regions of Eurasia, including the northern polar areas and islands in the Arctic Ocean. The proximity of the Pole and the Arctic Ocean determine the climate and nature of these areas, and also their landscape, which mostly consists of tundra and forest-tundra. Vast areas are covered by mountains and bogs, and there are many lakes and rivers. Fog, strong winds, long winters (lasting from September/October until June), permafrost, and scanty vegetation are only a few of geographic features that illustrate the challenges faced by any creatures living in these areas. Thus, the lifestyle as well as type and seasonal character of the economy of the northern indigenous peoples has been mainly determined by the extreme conditions and the associated severe constraints imposed on
human communities. The severe climate and limited natural resource base makes it impossible to use the agricultural and subsistence practices commonly found in more southernareas. As a result, northern indigenous peoples took longer to develop their primary economies than other longer indigenous populations. Up until the 20th century, most of the indigenous peoples predominantly practiced primitive forms of hunting (including sea-hunting), fishing, and gathering. Whilst some of the indigenous peoples also mastered, to varying degrees, the practice of nomadic reindeer-breeding, for many this also took a rudimentary form. It appears to me that in the ordering of this material and in his theoretical and interpretative passages Steward had three major objectives in mind: to classify tribes or other culture-carrying units on the basis of certain typical culture traits; (2) to distinguish broad cultural strata or levels and to indicate the developmental interrelationship of these levels and to determine, in so far as possible, the concrete historical processes by which these developments have taken place (Steward 1949). With this approach, which is at once taxonomic, developmental, and historical, I am in complete agreement. Steward has gathered the material and has indicated basic approaches, and it remains for others to develop these approaches or to create new ones in order to derive more meaning from the material. In this paper I will attempt not only to describe the major types of social structure under which I believe all sociopolitical units in this area can be listed but will attempt also to account for these types in terms of those cultural elements, environmental factors, and the
derivatives which appear to be intimately associated with them. Admittedly this approach is narrow, for large segments of culture content will be omitted. Nevertheless, even in those areas where the traditional lifestyle and economy are considered to be in crisis, there are still some traditional communities trying to overcome their difficulties and seeking to adapt their households to modern life.
ECONOMY:
The main traditional activities undertaken by the northern indigenous peoples include reindeer-breeding, hunting, fishing, sea-hunting, and gathering. The reindeer is a unique animal that can find food where other domestic animals are unable to survive. The European (or Lapponian), Novaya Zemlya,Siberian, Tundra, Siberian Woodland, Okhotian,Barguzin, and Spitsbergen reindeer are all sub-speciesof reindeer found in Russia. Reindeer-breeding is still the main economic activity for most indigenous peoples of the Russian Arctic. It is primarily practiced by Nenets, inland Chukchi, Koryaks, Nganasans, Dolgans, northern Khanty, Saami, Mansi, and some Evens, Evenki and Enets. Domestic reindeer breeding began mainly in the 18th century, through the domestication of wild reindeer, and represents a form of nomadic stock breeding.
Sea-hunting is a traditional activity of the indigenous peoples of coastal areas of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. These are primarily Eskimos, Aleuts, coastal Chukchi and Koryaks, and to a lesser extent Nenets, Evens, and some other indigenous groups. The object of this type of hunt are whales, walruses and seals (including Ringed seals), which provided indigenous communities with meat, fat and skins. Meat and fat from marine mammals, both fresh and processed, as well as preserved in traditional ways, were the main food sources for
some coastal communities.
Fishing has always been one of the most important traditional activities of the northern indigenous peoples. Until the present day, fish has been the most important food product for both people and dogs. The most active fishing takes place in spring and autumn during the seasonal migration of anadromous fish. Fishing has traditionally been the main activity of the Ob Khanty, Mansi, southern Selkups, some Kets, Nivkhs, Ulchis, Nanais, Negidals, Orochis, Oroks, Itelmens, some Koryaks and Chukchi. Fishing also provides materials for clothing and shoes.
Gathering wild plants and berries has been widely practiced since the earliest times and contributes to the provision of food and other needs of the indigenous peoples, for example, products to assist in tanning and dyeing of skins for clothing.