Question

How can we apply the 3 levels-of-analysis approach to the study of stuttering? That is, how can stuttering be examined at the three levels of interest? Please provide concrete examples in the form of informed speculations.

Answer 1

Stuttering is probably the best known and most re-searched speech disorder; but it also ranks among the most difficult to define, plausibly explain, or, especially in adults, treat effectively. In the recent edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R) (American Psychiatric Association, 1987), the “essential features” of the disorder are described as “frequent repetitions or prolongations of sound or syllables. Various other types of speech dysfluencies may also be involved, including blocking of sounds or interjection of words or sounds” (American Psychiatric Association, 1987, p. 86).

Few observers have difficulty in recognizing the features of chronic stuttering. The behaviors that listeners judge as stutterings appear to vary in their frequency across speaking situations and are dramatically reduced during certain speaking conditions or with the use of certain speech patterns. Chronic stuttering usually begins in early childhood, although adult onset of the disorder occasionally occurs, usually in conjunction with brain damage. Stuttering appears to occur in all nationalities with an incidence of approximately 1% and a prevalence of 4% to 5%.

The three Levels Of Analysis in psychology are:

1. Biological : it includes observing the physical aspects of the brain and it's chemicals.
2. Cognitive : it includes cognitive processes and the brain functions relating to it.
3. Sociocultural : it includes the environment and the social settings that influence ones behaviour. It explains the reasoni of conformity and consent.

Biological- Familial studies have consistently shown that PWS are more likely than controls to have family members who also report a history of stuttering. A recent review of 28 studies estimated that between 30% and 60% of PWS had a positive family history compared with less than 10% of controls. Twin studies have confirmed these findings. Additionally, male relatives carry a substantially higher risk than female relatives do. Recovery and persistence appear to be distinct heritable conditions.

Cognitive- Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated differences in anatomy and function of the brain in CWS compared with fluent controls, specifically in auditory and motor regions and the basal ganglia. These abnormalities might increase over time in individuals who do not recover from DS. Adults who stutter demonstrate hyperactivity of right hemispheric regions and abnormal coordination between brain areas that plan and execute speech. It is unclear whether anatomic and functional differences are a cause of stuttering or an adaptation to stuttering in the adult brain.

Sociocultural- Social and generalized anxiety have shown robust positive associations with stuttering, theorized to be a result of the cumulative negative social effects of stuttering. While the relationship between stuttering and anxiety is inconclusive in children, there is good evidence supporting the relationship in adolescents, young adults, and older adults. The evidence suggests that most people do not show increased anxiety until adolescence, although conclusions are limited by the heterogeneity of studies in this area. One theory suggests that CWS experience negative environmental risk factors beginning in early childhood, including negative experiences of socialization, which coalesce during adolescence, a time of greater social and physical change. A study of adolescents who stutter aged 12 to 17 concluded that 38% qualified for at least 1 mental disorder according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, criteria; anxiety was the most prevalent. In that study, older adolescents aged 15 to 17 reported significantly greater anxiety (P = .010) and emotional and behavioral problems (P = .036) compared with adolescents aged 12 to 14, although mean scores were normal in both groups. Stuttering in adults, on the other hand, has been associated with 2-fold increased odds of any mood disorder and 3-fold higher odds of personality disorders compared with matched controls.