Question

If you have to evaluate the feasibility to purchasing a company; and feasibility of implementing a project, will the WACC remain same for a single company? Why or Why not? Provide detailed explanation along with integrating theory.

Answer 1

The optimal capital structure of a firm is the best mix of debt and equity financing that maximizes a company’s market value while minimizing its cost of capital. In theory, debt financing offers the lowest cost of capital due to its tax deductibility. However, too much debt increases the financial risk to shareholders and the return on equity that they require. Thus, companies have to find the optimal point at which the marginal benefit of debt equals the marginal cost.

The optimal capital structure is estimated by calculating the mix of debt and equity that minimizes the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) of a company while maximizing its market value. The lower the cost of capital, the greater the present value of the firm’s future cash flows, discounted by the WACC. Thus, the chief goal of any corporate finance department should be to find the optimal capital structure that will result in the lowest WACC and the maximum value of the company (shareholder wealth).

According to economists Modigliani and Miller, in the absence of taxes, bankruptcy costs, agency costs, and asymmetric information, in an efficient market, the value of a firm is unaffected by its capital structure.

Optimal Capital Structure and WACC

The cost of debt is less expensive than equity because it is less risky. The required return needed to compensate debt investors is less than the required return needed to compensate equity investors, because interest payments have priority over dividends, and debt holders receive priority in the event of a liquidation. Debt is also cheaper than equity because companies get tax relief on interest, while dividend payments are paid out of after-tax income.

However, there is a limit to the amount of debt a company should have because an excessive amount of debt increases interest payments, the volatility of earnings, and the risk of bankruptcy. This increase in the financial risk to shareholders means that they will require a greater return to compensate them, which increases the WACC—and lowers the market value of a business. The optimal structure involves using enough equity to mitigate the risk of being unable to pay back the debt—taking into account the variability of the business’s cash flow.

Companies with consistent cash flows can tolerate a much larger debt load and will have a much higher percentage of debt in their optimal capital structure. Conversely, a company with volatile cash flows will have little debt and a large amount of equity.

Determining the Optimal Capital Structure

As it can be difficult to pinpoint the optimal capital structure, managers usually attempt to operate within a range of values. They also have to take into account the signals their financing decisions send to the market.

A company with good prospects will try to raise capital using debt rather than equity, to avoid dilution and sending any negative signals to the market. Announcements made about a company taking debt are typically seen as positive news, which is known as debt signaling. If a company raises too much capital during a given time period, the costs of debt, preferred stock, and common equity will begin to rise, and as this occurs, the marginal cost of capital will also rise.

To gauge how risky a company is, potential equity investors look at the debt/equity ratio. They also compare the amount of leverage other businesses in the same industry are using—on the assumption that these companies are operating with an optimal capital structure—to see if the company is employing an unusual amount of debt within its capital structure.

Another way to determine optimal debt-to-equity levels is to think like a bank. What is the optimal level of debt a bank is willing to lend? An analyst may also utilize other debt ratios to put the company into a credit profile using a bond rating. The default spread attached to the bond rating can then be used for the spread above the risk-free rate of a AAA-rated company.

Limitations of Optimal Capital Structure

Unfortunately, there is no magic ratio of debt to equity to use as guidance to achieve real-world optimal capital structure. What defines a healthy blend of debt and equity varies according to the industries involved, line of business, and a firm's stage of development, and can also vary over time due to external changes in interest rates and regulatory environment.

However, because investors are better off putting their money into companies with strong balance sheets, it makes sense that the optimal balance generally should reflect lower levels of debt and higher levels of equity.

Theories on Capital Structure

Modigliani-Miller (M&M) Theory

The Modigliani-Miller (M&M) theorem is a capital structure approach named after Franco Modigliani and Merton Miller in the 1950s. Modigliani and Miller were two economics professors who studied capital structure theory and collaborated to develop the capital structure irrelevance proposition.

This proposition states that in perfect markets the capital structure a company uses doesn't matter because the market value of a firm is determined by its earning power and the risk of its underlying assets. According to Modigliani and Miller, value is independent of the method of financing used and a company's investments. The M&M theorem made the two following propositions:

Proposition I

This proposition says that the capital structure is irrelevant to the value of a firm. The value of two identical firms would remain the same and value would not be affected by the choice of financing adopted to finance the assets. The value of a firm is dependent on the expected future earnings. It is when there are no taxes.

Proposition II

This proposition says that the financial leverage boosts the value of a firm and reduces WACC. It is when tax information is available.

While the Modigliani-Miller theorem is studied in finance, real firms do face taxes, credit risk, transaction costs, and inefficient markets, which makes the mix of debt and equity financing important.

IMPORTANCE AND USES OF WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (WACC)

A company is raising funds from different sources of finance and doing business with those funds. The company has a responsibility to give a return to its funding providers. If a company has only one source of financing, then it is the rate at which it is required to earn from the business. However, the company may have raised funds from more than one source of finance, in which case WACC (Weighted Average Cost of Capital) must be found, which indicates the minimum rate at which the company should earn from the business in order to give a return to its finance providers, as per their expectations. The importance and usefulness of the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) as a financial tool for both investors and companies are well accepted among financial analysts. It’s important for companies to make their investment decisions and evaluate projects with similar and dissimilar risks. The calculation of important metrics like net present values and economic value added requires the WACC. It is equally important for investors making valuations of companies.

WACC analysis can be looked at from two angles—the investor and the company. From the company’s angle, it can be defined as the blended cost of capital that the company must pay for using the capital of both owners and debt holders. In other words, it is the minimum rate of return a company should earn to create value for investors. From the investor’s angle, it is the opportunity cost of their capital. If the return offered by the company is less than its WACC, it is destroying value, so the investors may discontinue their investment in the company.

The following points will explain why WACC is important and how it is used by investors and the company for their respective purposes:

INVESTMENT DECISIONS BY THE COMPANY

WACC is widely used for making investment decisions in corporations by evaluating their projects. Let’s categorize the investments in projects in the following 2 ways:

EVALUATION OF PROJECTS WITH THE SAME RISK

When the new projects have a similar risk level to existing projects of the company, it’s an appropriate benchmark rate to decide the acceptance or rejection of these projects. For example, a furniture manufacturer wishes to expand its business in new locations, i.e., establishing a new factory for the same kind of furniture in a different location. To generalize this to some extent, a company entering new projects in its own industry can reasonably assume a similar risk and use WACC as a hurdle rate to decide whether it should enter into the project or not.

EVALUATION OF PROJECTS WITH DIFFERENT RISK

WACC is an appropriate measure to evaluate a project, provided two underlying assumptions are true. These assumptions are ‘same risk’ and ‘same capital structure’. What should one do in this situation? WACC can be used with certain modifications, with respect to the risk and target capital structure. Risk-adjusted WACC and adjusted present value etc. are the concepts to circumvent the problems of WACC assumptions.

DISCOUNT RATE IN NET PRESENT VALUE CALCULATIONS

Net present value (NPV) is the widely used method of evaluating projects to determine the profitability of the investment. WACC is used as discount rate or the hurdle rate for NPV calculations. All the free cash flows and terminal values are discounted using the WACC.

CALCULATE ECONOMIC VALUE ADDED (EVA)

EVA is calculated by deducting the cost of capital from the profits of the company. When calculating the EVA, WACC serves as the cost of capital of the company. This is how WACC may also be called a measure of value creation.

Leverage is the ratio of debt to equity.

​WACC=VE​∗Re+VD​∗Rd∗(1−Tc)

So, as the proportion of debt to equity increases, the weighted average cost of capital declines. This is due to debt being cheaper than equity, since debt is tax-advantaged.

Note however that this can be a little misleading. If a company takes on so much debt that it can’t repay its debts, then the cost of capital doesn’t really matter. So you shouldn’t conclude from this that taking on 100% debt is optimal.