Question

1. Draw a map of the three pathways of cellular respiration, and identify where B- vitamins participate in energy metabolism.

2. In a table, please plan for a three meals of a day where all major minerals are represented.

3. List two antioxidant vitamins (water or fat soluble) and how they can deal with free radicals in the body and if there is toxicity of overdosing.

4) Define hyponatremia, hypokalemia, and hypocalcemia and list three manifestations for each.

Answer 1

Cellular respiration is a collection of three unique metabolic pathways: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain.

the B-complex vitamins act as coenzymes in energy metabolism. The B complex of vitamins includes thiamin (vitamin Bl), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), folate (folic acid), vitamin B12 (cobalamin), pantothenic acid, and biotin.

• Thiamine (B1)
• Thiamine, one of the water-soluble vitamins, is especially important in glucose metabolism. It acts as a cofactor for enzymes that break down glucose for energy production.
• Riboflavin (B2)
• Riboflavin, also a water-soluble vitamin, is an essential component of flavoproteins, which are coenzymes involved in many metabolic pathways of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism. Flavoproteins aid in the transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain, thus the production of energy or ATP, and the active form is flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) or flavin mononucleotide (FMN).
• Niacin (B3)
• Niacin is a water-soluble vitamin and is found as nicotinamide (niacinamide) or nicotinic acid. It is a component of the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and its phosphorylated form (NADP), which are involved in the catabolism and/or anabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. NADH is the predominant electron carrier and transfers electrons to the electron transport chain to make ATP. NADPH is required for the anabolic pathways of fatty acid .
• Pantothenic Acid (B5)
• Pantothenic acid, another water-soluble vitamin, forms coenzyme A, which is the main carrier of carbon molecules in a cell. Acetyl-CoA is the carbon carrier of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids into the citric acid cycle.and cholesterol synthesis.
• Pyroxidine (B6)
• Pyroxidine (water-soluble vitamin) is the coenzyme involved in nitrogen transfer between amino acids and therefore plays a role in amino-acid synthesis and catabolism. Also, it functions to release glucose from glycogen in the catabolic pathway of glycogenolysis and is required by enzymes for the synthesis of multiple neurotransmitters and hemoglobin.
• Biotin (B7)
• Biotin (water-soluble vitamin) is required as a coenzyme in the citric acid cycle and in lipid metabolism. It is also required as an enzyme in the synthesis of glucose, fatty acids, and some nonessential amino acids and carries carbon dioxide (CO2) away from the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle).
• Cobalamin (B12)
• Cobalamin contains cobalt, making it the only vitamin that contains a metal ion. Cobalamin is an essential part of coenzymes. It is necessary for fat and protein catabolism, for folate coenzyme function, and for hemoglobin synthesis. An enzyme requiring cobalamin is needed by a folate-dependent enzyme to synthesize DNA.
• Folate
• Folate is a required coenzyme for the synthesis of the amino acid methionine, and for making RNA and DNA. Therefore, rapidly dividing cells are most affected by folate deficiency. Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are continuously being synthesized in the bone marrow from dividing stem cells.

1. Nuts and seeds

Nuts and seeds are packed with an array of minerals but particularly rich in magnesium, zinc, manganese, copper, selenium, and phosphorus (3Trusted Source).

Certain nuts and seeds stand out for their mineral content. For example, just one Brazil nut provides 174% of your daily selenium needs, while a 1/4-cup (28-gram) serving of pumpkin seeds delivers 40% of your daily magnesium needs.

2.Shellfish, including oysters, clams, and mussels, are concentrated sources of minerals and packed with selenium, zinc, copper, and iron (6).

Consuming 6 medium-sized oysters (84 grams) covers your daily needs for zinc and copper and provides 30% and 22% of your daily needs for selenium and iron, respectively.

3.Eggs

Eggs are often referred to as nature’s multivitamin — and for good reason. Whole eggs are rich in nutrients and provide many important minerals.

They’re high in iron, phosphorus, zinc, and selenium, as well as many vitamins, healthy fats, antioxidants, and proteins.

4.Organ meats

Although not as popular as protein sources like chicken and steak, organ meats are amongst the most mineral-dense foods you can eat.

For example, a slice (85 grams) of beef liver covers your daily copper needs and provides 55%, 41%, 31%, and 33% of your daily needs for selenium, zinc, iron, and phosphorus, respectively.

ACTION OF ANTIOXIDANT VITAMINS

The principal antioxidants are vitamin E, beta-carotene, vitamin C, and selenium. When these antioxidants neutralize free radicals by donating an electron particle they are left with a small problem.

Free radicals and other ROS are derived either from normal essential metabolic processes in the human body or from external sources such as exposure to X-rays, ozone, cigarette smoking, air pollutants, and industrial chemicals.[3] Free radical formation occurs continuously in the cells as a consequence of both enzymatic and nonenzymatic reactions. Enzymatic reactions, which serve as source of free radicals, include those involved in the respiratory chain, in phagocytosis, in prostaglandin synthesis, and in the cytochrome P-450 system.[7] Free radicals can also be formed in nonenzymatic reactions of oxygen with organic compounds as well as those initiated by ionizing reactions.

the antioxidants that scavenge the active radicals to suppress chain initiation and/or break the chain propagation reactions. Various endogenous radical-scavenging antioxidants are known: some are hydrophilic and others are lipophilic. Vitamin C, uric acid, bilirubin, albumin, and thiols are hydrophilic, radical-scavenging antioxidants, while vitamin E and ubiquinol are lipophilic radical-scavenging antioxidants. Vitamin E is accepted as the most potent radical-scavenging lipophilic antioxidant.

HYPONATREMIA

A condition that occurs when the level of sodium in the blood is too low.

With this condition, the body holds onto too much water. This dilutes the amount of sodium in the blood and causes levels to be low.

Manifestations:

nausea and vomiting, confusion, seizures, lost consciousness.

HYPOKALEMIA

A blood level that is below normal in potassium, an important body chemical. The problem can result in fatigue, muscle cramps and abnormal heart rhythms.

manifestations:

Fatigue

Muscle cramps or twitching

Constipation

HYPOCALCEMIA

condition in which the blood has too little calcium.

Hypocalcaemia can be caused by lack of vitamin D. It can also signal a condition of the four small glands in the neck (the parathyroid glands), the kidneys or the pancreas.

Manifestations:

Muscular: cramping, muscle weakness, or muscle spasms

Also common: fatigue, irritability, or sensation of pins and needles.